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		<title>Learning from the whirlpools of existence
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2876</link>
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		<dc:date>2026-04-23T05:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Michel Alhadeff-Jones
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;This paper has already been published in the European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults, Vol. 12, No. 3 (2021) : Learning in times of crisis. Abstract : The aim of this paper is to problematize and enrich the use of the concept of crisis in adult education to theorize further its contribution to the study of transformative processes. This paper discusses first the implications inherent in the adoption of event-based and processual approaches to crises. It seeks (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;This paper has already been published in the &lt;a href=&#034;https://rela.ep.liu.se/article/view/3914&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&lt;i&gt;European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults,&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Vol. 12, No. 3 (2021) : Learning in times of crisis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Abstract :&lt;/strong&gt; The aim of this paper is to problematize and enrich the use of the concept of crisis in adult education to theorize further its contribution to the study of transformative processes. This paper discusses first the implications inherent in the adoption of event-based and processual approaches to crises. It seeks then to nuance and problematize the ways in which the relationships between crisis, learning and (trans)formative processes are conceived in adult education, especially through transformative learning theory and biographical approaches. The reflection highlights the difficulty of capturing the fluidity of learning and (trans)formative dynamics. Inspired by Edgar Morin's paradigm of complexity and illustrated by examples taken from the COVID-19 pandemic, three principles are defined to help conceiving what structures, regulates and reorganizes such dynamics. The contribution concludes by emphasizing the importance of developing a critical awareness of the rhythms that shape educational processes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Keywords : &lt;/strong&gt; crisis, transformation, complexity, rhythm, Adult education, COVID-19&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Learning from the whirlpools of experience&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;div class='spip_document_6461 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_file spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt;
&lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/IMG/pdf/michel_alhadeff-jones_learning_from_the_whirlpools_of_existence.pdf' class=&#034; spip_doc_lien&#034; title='PDF - 399.7 kio' type=&#034;application/pdf&#034;&gt;&lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L64xH64/pdf-b8aed.svg?1779450480' width='64' height='64' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Every crisis leaves traces that appear both through the regressions and the advances that emerge from it. In many regards, when we refer to the lessons learned and the transformations associated with the experience of a crisis, we are referring to its most striking effects, what emerges from it. However, from an educational perspective, the experience of a crisis cannot be reduced to the explicit marks it leaves. The outcome of a crisis depends indeed on all the activities deployed to contain, regulate, and transcend it, before, during and after the occurrence of a specific perturbation. These activities manifest themselves through processes that express the evolution of tensions (e.g., dilemmas, psychological distress, social conflicts) whose effects over time eventually lead to the emergence of specific transformations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
[...]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>An Exploration of Rhythms in the Contemporary Academy: Time, Space and Affect
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		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2463</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2463</guid>
		<dc:date>2025-07-30T05:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Fadia Dakka &amp; Rob Smith
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;This paper had already been published in Theory and Method in Higher Education Research, vol. 5, Emerald Publishing Limited, 2019, pp. 153-171. We thank the authors for the permission to republish it here. Abstract: Drawing on Lefebvre's theorization of rhythm, this chapter presents and discusses rhythmanalysis as a philosophical orientation and as an experimental methodology for social, cultural, and historical research. In particular, it innovatively deploys rhythmanalysis to explore (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Introduction&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;Introduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Theoretical underpinnings and methodological justification&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;Theoretical underpinnings and methodological justification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Methods and practice in the pilot&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;Methods and practice in the pilot&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Discussion: method(s) in the context of our pilot&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_3'&gt;Discussion: method(s) in the context of our pilot&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Doing rhythmanalysis&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_4'&gt;Doing rhythmanalysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Concluding Remarks&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_5'&gt;Concluding Remarks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;References&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_6'&gt;References&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;This paper had already been published in&lt;/i&gt; &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S2056-375220190000005010/full/html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Theory and Method in Higher Education Research&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;i&gt;vol. 5, Emerald Publishing Limited, 2019, pp. 153-171. We thank the authors for the permission to republish it here.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Abstract:&lt;/strong&gt; Drawing on Lefebvre's theorization of rhythm, this chapter presents and discusses rhythmanalysis as a philosophical orientation and as an experimental methodology for social, cultural, and historical research. In particular, it innovatively deploys rhythmanalysis to explore and investigate the everyday life of the contemporary university. To this end it, critically reviews the methods (and findings) of a pilot project that aimed to capture the rhythmic nature of the quotidian activities of staff and students at a &#8220;modern&#8221; university in the West Midlands of England (2017&#8211;2018). The novel combination of research methods employed, comprising audio-visually recorded walking interviews, time-lapse photography of three campuses, and of classroom/laboratory/studio teaching sessions, is examined to reveal the affordances of rhythmanalysis &lt;i&gt;qua &lt;/i&gt; experimental methodology. The concluding section offers a reflection on the intellectual and practical purchase of the rhythmanalytical project while suggesting the possibility to further develop these innovative methods in order to refine current analyses and understandings of the contemporary university.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Keywords:&lt;/strong&gt; rhythmanalysis, university, experimental methods, time-lapse, critique, suspension&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Introduction&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This chapter draws on Lefebvre's theorization of rhythm (1992) as a philosophical orientation, experimental methodology and, more generally, as a promising mode of inquiry for socio-cultural, historical research. In this respect it advocates in favour of rhythmanalysis as a method to explore and relay the cultural, political, economic and affective transformations of the contemporary university, as they emerge from the quotidian experiences and interactions of its teachers and learners. In considering the rhythmicity of teaching and learning as everyday practices, it is our contention that place and time exert a fundamental yet under-explored influence on the way these are experienced. In other words, a focus on rhythm allows us to disentangle and critique these cultural, political, economic and affective dimensions by exploring the ways in which they interweave in the fabric of the contemporary university.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Current debates around the culture of acceleration and speed (Rosa, 2013; Wajcmann and Dodd, 2017; Virilio, 1986) and the neoliberal-managerial turn experienced in the Western university (Deem et al., 2008; Slaughter and Leslie, 1997; Giroux 2014; Docherty 2015) situate and contextualise a discussion centred on the challenges, opportunities and sustainability of the &#8216;accelerated academy' (Vostal, 2016). In line with Sharma (2014) and Lyon (2018), we think that the binary often implied in discourses of speed versus slowness tend to favour time over space, producing a &#8216;linear spatialisation of time' (Lyon, 2018, p. 4) that obscures the complexity of lived experiences as they materialise in unique spatio-temporal and affective tangles. Conversely, we argue, rhythmanalysis as a research methodology can offer a more nuanced, versatile and embodied approach to the study of everyday life. Harnessing the strength of time-space (rhythm) as a &lt;i&gt;single&lt;/i&gt; category of thought-in-action allows for the illumination of the geometries of power that play out in, and are constitutive of, time and space (Massey, 2005; Sharma 2014).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This chapter explores and tests these ideas by critically discussing the &lt;i&gt;methods&lt;/i&gt; of a pilot project (2017-18) that aimed to capture the rhythmic orientations and fluctuations enveloped in the everyday activities of staff and students at a &#8216;modern' university in the West Midlands of England. The innovative combination of research methods employed, comprising audio-visually recorded walking interviews, time-lapse photography of the three campuses and of classroom/lab/studio teaching sessions, are examined to reveal the affordances of rhythmanalysis as an experimental methodology. The concluding section offers a reflection on the intellectual purchase of the rhythmanalytical project as a praxis capable of translating the complexity of these articulations in their simultaneity, materiality and nuance and as a pedagogic-political tool to effect change within the university.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Theoretical underpinnings and methodological justification &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Rhythmanalysis: Space, Time and Everyday Life&lt;/i&gt; (2004) is &lt;i&gt;de facto&lt;/i&gt; considered to be the fourth and final volume of Henri Lefebvre's life-long oeuvre, &lt;i&gt;Critique of Everyday Life&lt;/i&gt; (2014). Published posthumously in 1992 (Lefebvre, 2004 [1992]), it set out to outline the theory and practice of a new field of knowledge devoted to the analysis of rhythms. &#8216;Everywhere where there is interaction between a place, a time and an expenditure of energy, there is &lt;i&gt;rhythm' &lt;/i&gt;(Lefebvre, 2014, p. 25), Lefebvre writes, starting with a general definition and proceeding to illustrate what a systematic study of it could look like:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The rhythmanalysis here defined as a method and a theory pursues this time-honoured labour [the discovery of rhythms] in a systematic and theoretical manner, by bringing together very diverse practices and very diverse types of knowledge: medicine, history, climatology, cosmology, poetry (the poetic), etc. Not forgetting, of course, sociology and psychology, which occupy the front line and supply the essentials. (Lefebvre, 2004, p. 16)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Rhythmanalysis therefore embraces disciplinary and methodological &#8216;nomadism'. In Lefebvre's conceptualisation, poetry and psychoanalysis feature as practices and modes of inquiry in tune with the spirit of rhythmanalysis: with the first, it shares the attention for language and aesthetic, and a transformative gaze based on perception; with the latter, a systematic attentiveness to revealing details. In the context of socio-spatial practice then, rhythmanalysis attends to the body in space and to patterns of movements and activities, foregrounding the mutuality of the spatial and the social, of time and space and of place and space in the analysis of the everyday (Jacklin, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Through rhythm we can appreciate the making and remaking of social practice &#8211; its relation between repetition of routines and emergence/eruption of differences within those routines. This is a mode of inquiry that extends to a variety of activities, things and affective states, such as commodities, institutions, work, training, learning, pathologies, atmospheres and so forth, on the assumption that these can be read as rhythmic occurrences, assemblages, events (Jacklin, 2004). In this sense, rhythmanalysis shares a philosophical ground with both phenomenology and new materialism. In accord with the first, its focus on perceptual relations and on the body as a &#8216;metronome' of a myriad of interrelations posits rhythm as a &lt;i&gt;sensorium&lt;/i&gt; or a meta-sense that registers, subsumes and conveys the multitude of human senses (Chen, 2017). Meanwhile, and in line with the latter, its emphasis on materiality and processes of materialization imply a notion of rhythm as a &#8216;localised temporality' or as a &#8216;temporalised spatiality'. The energy that animates time and space producing rhythms occurs through &lt;i&gt;repetition&lt;/i&gt;, which, in relation to &lt;i&gt;difference&lt;/i&gt;, defines one of rhythmnanalysis' central methodological categories. Other recurring categories are &lt;i&gt;linear rhythms&lt;/i&gt;, denoted by quantification, measure, fragmentation, sequence. These are typically the social rhythms of (capital) production and consumption, imposed and accentuated by technology and industry. Urban life and the pulsing jolts of the city are often cast in linear terms by Lefebvre. &lt;i&gt;Cyclical rhythms&lt;/i&gt;, conversely, characterise the vitality of the cosmic rhythms of nature (e.g. seasons, alternation of day and night) and their influence on our biological, bodily rhythms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
For Lefebvre, the linear and the cyclical interfere with one another, and he bemoans the worrying colonization of the latter by the linear rhythms of capital (production, consumption, accumulation). Repetition and difference, the linear and cyclical, overlap and exist in a permanent tension, the articulation and critique of which will be a major task for the rhythmanalyst. Furthermore, rhythms form assemblages. Their diverse, plural ensemble is named &#8216;&lt;i&gt;polyrhythmia&lt;/i&gt;'. When a rhythmic constellation combines and functions harmoniously, it gives birth to &lt;i&gt;eurhythmia&lt;/i&gt; (e.g. a state of good health). However, it is arrhythmia, which characterises a (pathological) disruption or discordance between rhythms, that interests Lefebvre the most. If arrhythmia reveals the symptom of a disorder, it can also be used &#8211; politically, socially, physiologically &#8211; as a tool to address the dysfunction. Finally, what Lefebvre calls &#8216;&lt;i&gt;dressage&lt;/i&gt;' denotes the process of entrainment (&#8216;the breaking in') that bodies undergo, through repetition over time, until absorption (e.g. military drills). Dressage echoes Pierre Bourdieu's notion of &lt;i&gt;habitus &lt;/i&gt;&#8216;for the ways in which the body is quite literally shaped in relation to the techniques, habits and practices of class, gender, ethnicity, nationality and so on' (Lyon, 2018, p. 27).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Yet, one cannot understand Lefebvre's critique of the everyday life without a reference to the theory and temporality of moments. Firstly introduced in the autobiographical text &lt;i&gt;La Somme et le Reste &lt;/i&gt;(1959) and then in the second volume of the &lt;i&gt;Critique&lt;/i&gt; (1961), Lefebvre introduces the moment as &#8216;the attempt to achieve the total realization of a possibility' (Lefebvre, quoted in Merrifield, 2006, p. 27). Moments are opportunities to be seized and invented, modalities of presence, critical situations often characterized by spontaneity, excess and ambiguity. They represent the possibility of change and subversion within the (political) struggle against the colonization of the linear, the commodification of the everyday. The temporality of moments embraces a non-linear conception of time. Against Bergson's notion of duration, moments are discontinuous instants that can pave the way for a revolution, thus disrupting the monotony of the everyday: &#8216;The fulfilment of a moment is never an absolute present, each moment is inscribed in its preceding form while simultaneously anticipating future returns and renewals' (Chen, 2017, p. 26).&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;Rhythms can therefore be seen as constellations punctuated by moments, refrains and intermissions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The study of rhythm rests on a rich philosophical and historical tradition: Pascal Michon, a contemporary philosopher and historian of rhythm, traces its genealogy by looking at the works of Emile Benveniste, Edgar Morin, Henri Meschonnic, Roland Barthes, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Henri Lefebvre, Michel Foucault and Michel Serres, among others (&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.rhuthmos.eu&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034;&gt;Rhuthmos website repository&lt;/a&gt;). Derek McCormack (2013) establishes a connection between the work of the American pragmatist philosopher John Dewey and the study of rhythm as a conceptual instrument to conceive of differentiation in process and as a promising resource to grasp the temporal and spatial nature of rhythm in their simultaneity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The peculiarity of Lefebvre's work, though, lies in its offering of a lively reservoir of ideas to be translated and experimented with in practice. In other words, there is an underlying empirical vocation to the analysis of the everyday, justified by Lefebvre's desire to change it. Hence why Jean-Paul Sartre defined the rhythmanalytical method as &#8216;regressive-progressive'. First, it is characterized by a descriptive element that could be summarized as a form of phenomenological observation closely examined through a combination of experience and a general theory. Secondly, it is defined as analytico-regressive and historical-genetic because it performs an analysis of reality that is based on a re-discovery of the present, which will be illuminated, understood and explained through the excavation of the past (Merrifield, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The emancipatory, transformative ambition of Lefebvre's project allows for versatile &#8216;applications' in which philosophy/theory, methodology and methods cannot be easily separated. Even if Lefebvre did not provide a clear nor systematic methodology for rhythmanalysis, in recent years many scholars, intrigued by the potential of this &#8216;investigative disposition' (Hall et al. 2008) have attempted to operationalise rhythmanalysis in a range of disciplinary fields. Dawn Lyon (2018) offers a comprehensive review of such attempts in her recent book. Within geography, for example, a substantive literature has deployed rhythmanalysis to render the &#8216;liveliness' and flux of mobility (walking, running, cycling, commuting, dancing, coach travel, ferry travel)&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;See the works of Edensor (2010a; 2010b; 2011); Edensor and Bowdler (2015); (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh1&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. In urban studies and sociology, rhythmanalysis has been respectively used to capture urban street life and routines (Highmore 2002; Chen 2013, 2017), street performance (Simpson, 2008); the workings of financial markets (Borch et al. 2015) and socio-natural rhythms (Evans and Jones, 2008). If the connection between rhythmanalysis and institutions (practice theory and processes of institutionalization) has been explored before (Blue, 2017), its application to an educational setting has never been attempted. Our rhythmanalysis of the contemporary university revisits Lefebvre's conceptual framework to explore the rhythms of teaching and learning, combining a range of methods that have been previously rehearsed across geography and sociology in a novel way.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
At a macro level, the university can be seen as part of a broader ensemble of rhythms that connect it, &lt;i&gt;qua&lt;/i&gt; institution, to the surrounding cultural, economic, political, societal and ecological landscapes. At a meso level, the university is a rhythmic time-space shelter (Wood, 2000), traversed by linear and cyclical rhythms and therefore produced by and reproducing certain rhythmic orientations. However, in order to produce a &#8216;critique of the university's everyday life', we needed to start from the micro dimensions expressed by the spatio-temporal and affective experiences of teachers and learners and work our way up to re-compose its polyrhythmia. We were interested in exploring the ways in which different spaces and temporalities at play within the institution affect the experience of teaching and learning. In particular, we wanted to explore the intersection between linear and cyclical rhythms in the everyday life of teachers and learners; namely, how institutional-structural pressures to produce against set targets (e.g. Research Excellence Framework; Teaching Excellence Framework; third stream activities aimed at wealth creation) impact on &#8211; forcing a recalibration towards the linear &#8211; the existential and professional rhythms of the participants.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The challenge presented by our engagement with Lefebvrian theory was therefore to devise a methodology that could adequately capture and translate the participants' experience of space/time and affect. The intention was to gather data that offered insights into individuals' experiences of space/time within each of the three campuses of the University. Within this, we sought to discern how the materiality of higher education space at each campus shaped the participants' experience and feelings while on campus. Our methodological reflection was led by the intention to maintain the original Lefebvrian idea of a heuristic, experimental, empirical, transdisciplinary, historic and suggestive method and by the desire &#8211; and consequent difficulty &#8211; of capturing the lively fluidity of complex social phenomena &lt;i&gt;in action&lt;/i&gt;. Chen's articulation of this problematique helped us define and refine the choice of our methods in dialogic relationship with the investigated phenomena:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the shared concerns about how to best capture the liveliness and complexity of social processes, these discussions on methods often step back from the &#8216;taken-for-grantedness' of the issues at hand, the research apparatus and the procedures for undertaking research. They highlight the necessity of mutual adjustment in the process of conceiving problems against how they may be conceived by using various methods. The relationship between problem and method is succinctly articulated by Wakeford and Lury as they note &#8216;it is this combination, we suggest, that makes a method answerable to its problem, provide the basis for its self-displacing movement, its inventiveness, although the likelihood of the inventiveness can never be known in advance of a specific use.' (Chen, 2017, p.7)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The following sections will therefore present and discuss the choice of the methods in light of these theoretical and methodological considerations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_2&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Methods and practice in the pilot &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;A Rhythmic Analysis of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Time, Space, Affect&lt;/i&gt;, was a pilot project conducted in 2017-18 in a post-92, teaching intensive university of the West Midlands of England. At the time of the project, the university comprised three campuses. Their different location (central, South and North of the host city), atmosphere, disciplinary division and pace of activities provided a convenient laboratory to test rhythmanalysis. We are naturally grasped by certain rhythms, but in order for us to grasp them, according to Lefebvre, we must step out of them. It is this shift between the insider/outsider perspective that makes critique possible. This consideration prompted the idea of comparing and contrasting the rhythms of City North (a &#8216;ghostly' campus on the verge of being shut down), City Centre (a campus that absorbs and reproduces the vivacious urban pulses of the city) and City South (a campus located in the leafy, suburban, quiet area of the city). In order to do so we devised a multi-method research design, comprising of:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Time-lapse&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The first innovation we mobilised was the use of time-lapse photography. A Go-pro camera on a tripod was located to record time-lapse data in five different locations on each campus. We planned to produce data for the teaching &amp; learning spaces of three different subject areas (classroom/lab/workshop); the campus library; the external entrance and the main &#8216;social learning' space. The plan was to record six hours of time-lapse for each campus. In fact, it wasn't possible to gather time-lapse data for all subject areas. We managed 6 out of 9 subject areas. The implications of this are explored below in the discussion section.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Teacher and student data&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to the time-lapse data, a total of 18 participants were selected, of which 9 were members of staff and 9 were students, across 3 faculties and 8 departments/disciplinary fields). These participants were also spread across the three different campuses of the university. The participants were chosen by subject area to provide insights into how space/time was used and experienced in a range of disciplinary areas. Students as well as staff were recruited as one aspect of the research was to develop understandings of the interaction of pedagogy and rhythm. Data was gathered through accompanied walking interviews with each participant wearing a bodycam to record point of view (POV) data. After the walking interview (within the same session), we carried out audio-recorded semi-structured interviews with all participants. Typically, these lasted between an hour and an hour and a half. They were approached as an opportunity for discursive critical reflection on the themes explored during the walking interview. The process of data collection lasted approximately two months.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_3&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Discussion: method(s) in the context of our pilot&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Our research design incorporated a range of audio-visual tools. The intention was to capture and illustrate how space and time were lived and experienced within each subject-specific teaching and learning space (i.e. classroom/workshop/studio etc.). We decided that using time-lapse video could provide an appropriate form of data (Jewitt et al. 2009). Time-lapse video was used in two kinds of spaces. First, to capture movement over one hour within the teaching and learning spaces of each subject area; then, to capture rhythms in social learning spaces including libraries and campus coffee outlets where students and staff could be seen working and socialising.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
While time-lapse photography has been used in researching ecosystems to chart environmental and biological changes (Brinley, Buckley &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;. 2017), in volcanology (Magnall &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;., 2018) and in sociology (Simpson, 2012; Jungnickel, 2015; Lyon, 2016), it has rarely been used in researching educational settings. To this end, a stationary camera on a tripod was set up for an hour in each location. A member of the research team sat nearby for the duration of the recording. In the teaching and learning spaces the tripod was set up in a position so that the camera could capture an overview of movement. This usually meant siting the camera in a raised position in one corner of the room. The camera offered the option of recording a wide angle shot with a large depth of field. With the camera carefully positioned, this gave us an image of the entire teaching and learning space.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Our hope was that time-lapse recordings would produce evidence of a signature rhythm for each subject: in other words, distinctive patterns of movement and pedagogical practice by teachers and students within the teaching and learning space. The use of time-lapse makes the different rhythms and uses of educational space visible and provides insights that simple observation and field notes can miss. This stems from the ability to watch and re-watch footage while looking for patterns. In using time-lapse, we did not set out to capture the differences between the rhythms followed by teachers as opposed to those followed by students. Rather we would argue that each session presents &lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt; rhythm constituted by smaller tributary rhythms that combine to form a pattern and &#8216;feel'.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Another impetus behind the use of time-lapse photographs was that they would provide us with extra-linguistic data, a reminder that rhythm is a sensory rich phenomenon involving bodily senses, mobility, and orientations in relation to others. If the body can be seen as &#8216;an unfinished biological and social phenomenon which is transformed, within certain limits, as a result of its entry into and participation in, society' (Shilling, 2012, p. 11), then the time-lapse is capable of revealing nuances about the kind of entries and the levels of participation of different individuals within educational encounters and in educational spaces. The photographs also remind us that education as a social and socialising process involves the deployment and arrangement of physical bodies in physical spaces regardless of course curriculum, to a certain extent. Furthermore, the use of photographs enables researchers to insist on the specificity of context and resist generalisation. In a nutshell, photographs remind us that education in educational spaces is essentially an embodied practice, thus reinforcing the significance of interpreting what happens in &lt;i&gt;this&lt;/i&gt; space at &lt;i&gt;this&lt;/i&gt; time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The other main method used in the project was the accompanied walking interview. The project involved the participants taking part in a walking interview during which they led the researcher around and talked about the spaces on the campuses that held significance for them. They were asked to comment on the significance of each place. The data comprised video footage from a bodycam, providing point-of-view (POV) footage, designed to give the viewer the unique perspective of the participants (to see what they see, to go where they go), in an attempt to reconstruct the everyday life in the university of a member of staff and/or a student. For this reason, student participants were chosen who were familiar with their learning environments and who had, therefore, established a student &lt;i&gt;habitus&lt;/i&gt;: a routinised interaction with the higher education environment including the frequenting of particular places and/or patterns of meaning-making about how they used and were affected by educational and social/educational spaces. This meant that they were recruited in their final year (the majority) or as postgraduate students from each subject area. This enabled us to explore whether patterns of interaction and use in the HE environment have developed differently across subjects and campuses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
In this design, the space and the architecture effectively constituted an additional participant. Viewed in this way, the different spaces can be seen as interacting with students and teachers: they are not a neutral backdrop against which people study, teach and socialise. Rather, they not only shape how these activities unfold but they also create an affective experience that impacts on individuals in different ways. Semi-structured interviews followed the tour, offering the participants the chance to reflect, guided by the researcher, on their relationship with space (mostly explored in the walking interview) and time (e.g. workload, pace of life/work, relationship with speed/slowness and so on). The walking interviews with bodycam, in particular, yielded a rich array of linguistic, audio and visual data that would have been reduced and rendered less nuanced and rich if it had simply been transcribed.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The combination of aural, haptic, visual and other sensory impressions helped provide a performative understanding of how space-time is &lt;i&gt;enacted&lt;/i&gt; and/or &lt;i&gt;produced&lt;/i&gt; rather than simply experienced. This view is consistent with Jones's notion of architecture as constituted of &#8216;buildings not simply as material objects, but as urban texts that are written as much by their users as their architects' (Jones, 2005). Put differently, the walking interviews allowed us to recast the higher education space as a quality that is produced by students and staff in ways that, while being shaped by physicality and temporality, are not constrained by them. This held profound methodological consequences, especially in terms of data representation and synthesis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The 20+ hours of video recordings, together with the same amount of audio-recorded semi-structured interviews and the time-lapse footage obtained in the three campuses produced a vivid picture of the three sites and their rhythms. The footage of the walking interviews was synthesised by creating six video-documentaries that collated, via editing and montage, the experiences of teachers and learners in a way that emphasised the key themes that emerged during the tours in the three campuses. The audio recordings were selectively transcribed and used as a complement and a commentary to the videos. The rationale behind it was to produce a form of triangulation of data that would lend internal coherence and consistency to the &#8216;rhythmic picture' created through the videos. Inspired by Dawn Lyon's audio-visual montage of the Billingsgate fish market (2016), we edited our time-lapse footage with soundbites recorded on each site and visually juxtaposed them to create an instant audio-visual comparison of the different rhythms at play in each of the different campuses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The time-lapse recorded in the classrooms, workshops and laboratories was edited &lt;i&gt;within&lt;/i&gt; the six documentaries, in a deliberate attempt to experiment &#8211; disjointing them &#8211; with temporal and spatial dimensions. So, for instance, you can hear a participant's voice while they reflect on the activities that &lt;i&gt;usually&lt;/i&gt; take place in a particular setting, empty at the time of the interview (e.g. the jewellery workshop). At that point, the time-lapse photography of those activities (previously recorded) gets inscribed/edited in the video, producing an incredibly rich &#8216;story' about the everyday life of the university, as it unfolds, simultaneously, not just in different places, but at different times. It is not just a case of conveying &#8211; following Lefebvre &#8211; the non-linear dimension of time-space as it is both experienced by the participants (e.g. in their recollections and projections) and retraced by the researchers. We quickly realised that the body, considered by Lefebvre to be the central &#8216;metronomic' device that absorbs and translates rhythm(s), was insufficient to capture and relay the activities that went on at different scales, temporal registers, and physical locations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Hence, following Lyon (2018), we crafted a research design that could do justice to and approximate this complexity and richness, by harnessing the strength of different methods, together. The real-time, deeply sensory experience of the accompanied walking interview produced a phenomenal reservoir of impressions, registered by the researcher during the sessions and revisited as &#8216;glowing data' (MacLure, 2013) at the point of synthesis/editing. For example, when re-watching and editing the video of one participant (a third-year Architecture student), we noticed that the production of space-time performed in the walking interview symbolically encapsulated the entirety of his educational trajectory and experience. The student walked us through the process of ideation and materialisation of a typical Architectural model, revealing the intersecting linear and cyclical rhythms of its production: from the place where ideas are born and discussed (the lecture room; the studios) on the fourth floor, we descended to the third floor, where the initial design would become materialised into the scale model. We then moved to the second floor, where the model would be photographed and finally printed to become part of the student's portfolio.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This seemingly linear process of production and representation is cyclically repeated as the modules progress. However, during the walking interview, the student unwittingly shed light on the non-linear, affective nature of the learning experience: the incessant &#8216;back-and-forth' between design and modelling to adjust and amend; the collaborative yet competitive relationship with the fellow students; the long-hours spent in the studios; the &#8216;anxiety room' where the portfolio gets printed (always) at the last minute; the ritualistic &#8216;Tuesday morning meetings' with the tutor, occurring in the hidden caf&#233; situated on the third floor. The &#8216;day in the life of' this student is punctuated by the significant events/moments recounted while traversing the institutional space &#8216;top-to-bottom' with rhythmic cadence. Once captured and synthesised in the video, it allows the researcher to pay particular attention to the &#8216;glowing moments' identified by the participant. These, in turn, can reveal aspects of their quotidian educational experience that are often overlooked and inevitably lost in the habitual repetition of their practices. In this respect, the video montage shows those particular-to-universal dialectic oscillations that Lefebvre sought to apprehend by entangling and disentangling the polyrhythmia of the social fabric. Here, the experience of one student unveils &#8211; often unbeknownst to them &#8211; the multiple and simultaneous entanglements with teachers, students, and their institutional spaces, politics and cultures.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The participants' reflections, collected via semi-structured interviews, offered a critical commentary and the opportunity to elaborate on insights offered during the walking interview relating to their relationship with, and production of institutional space-time. Finally, the time-lapse photography, in its dual use, produced a powerful visual representation of rhythms and atmospheres that classic narrative accounts might not fully capture. The following section explores the relationship between methodology and method in practice, disclosing the potential of an assemblage of methods to perform rhythmanalysis in and of educational settings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_4&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt; &lt;i&gt;Doing&lt;/i&gt; rhythmanalysis&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The examples below document, by way of illustration, the use of time-lapse photography in different learning and teaching spaces/settings. For all classroom time-lapse data ethical considerations were important: fully-informed consent was sought and signed forms collected from teachers and students. The first example presents a teaching session in craft, design and technology (CDT), recording a Cookery class. The second presents a Sociology lecture occurring in a standard classroom. In both cases, the use of time-lapse allowed the researchers to get a sense of how teachers and learners use space and &#8216;impose themselves' onto space. We see this equally, but differently represented in the CDT/Cookery class with its practical element (the preparation of a fish dish) and in the Sociology class (a bridging session between modules on classical and contemporary sociological theorists). The movements of the teachers that the time-lapse data reveal subtend and imply assumptions about their subject, the way it is enacted as curriculum and the rhythmicity of teaching and learning.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
In the example below (CDT/Cookery), the stills from the time-lapse footage are positioned to read clockwise from top left to bottom left. They identify patterns of movement in the room. These, in turn, reflect and portray a fluidity in the power dynamic between teacher and students. There are notable loci of interaction. The central desk provides a space for demonstration, a pole of attraction positioned at the centre of teaching and learning activity at the beginning of the session. As the sequence progresses, students disperse to put on aprons and re-group at the central table before dispersing again to their individual cooking areas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Bodies in this interaction with space are (potentially) educationally generative: the class is habitually set up to support dialogical and collective knowledge production. The movements of students and teacher alter in accordance with a loose pattern of activities that involves whole class interaction, pair work and individual work. Notwithstanding the visual limits inherent in the use of stills, we can begin to appreciate the complexity of a teaching space characterised by the mutual entanglement of subject specific materials (cooking ingredients), students and the shifting gravitational centre of the lesson: the teacher-led demonstration, the student exemplar, the paired students working on their separate dishes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The diversity of the student group is also worth commenting on. The students include people of African-Caribbean, African, Pakistani and white (English and Irish) backgrounds. As food is considered a quintessential expression of culture, this class offered an opportunity for students to share existing knowledge, experience and expertise with each other (and the teacher) and to connect this to new knowledge. This opening up of the curriculum to student identity/biography can be seen as an important feature of a pedagogy in higher education institutions with a diverse student body. The informal educational space discloses a continuing agency in meaning-making by opening up the possibility of interjections and contributions by individuals. The experience of the &#8216;lesson' is therefore one in which a broad collective rhythm (the explanation and preparation of a fish dish) contains within it the eddies and diversions, the accelerations and decelerations of individual class members as they work at their own speed with their own ingredients.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;CENTER&gt;Figure 1 &#8211; CDT/cookery class &lt;/CENTER&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;CENTER&gt;Figure 2 &#8211; Sociology class &lt;/CENTER&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The fluidity of this teaching and learning space differs from the way space is experienced in the Sociology class (Figure 2). Here, the static position of the students, sitting at their desks, contrasts with the movement of the teacher-in-action, whose choreographic gestures resemble those of a conductor. Immediately apparent is the larger number of students. Metaphorically, we witness the orchestration of the teacher's thoughts and, through the expressivity of his body, his attempts to engage the students with concepts and ideas. While the difference between a &#8216;vocational' subject area and an &#8216;academic' one provides some explanation for the absence of student mobility in the educational space, the contrast with the CDT/Cookery session appears stark.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The teacher stands at the front and with his arms outspread symbolically attempts to open an aperture onto the subject knowledge. The non-dialogical &#8216;lecturer' role positions him as the intermediary between students and subject knowledge. His dynamism and mobility compensates for the stasis of his students. On the surface, we might seem to be watching a pedagogical practice that conceptualises education as knowledge transmission but the teacher contextualised this lecture as a review session. His typical practice was to alternate this kind of lecture format with interactive seminars in which the students were encouraged to make active contributions. The last still (bottom left), shows a surge in movement, on the part of the students, who are (seemingly) now allowed to gather around the lecturer for individual questions and clarification before leaving the room.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
What both time-lapses reveal, through movement in space, is a distinct sense, albeit incomplete, of how time-space is produced in relation to each subject. The difference between practice-based subjects or subjects which are reliant on simulation (e.g. CDT, Jewellery, Architecture, Nursing, Midwifery, Radiography) and classroom-based disciplines (e.g. Sociology, Education, Physics, Media) is sharp. In the first instance, the co-production of time-space is materially bound to the institutional spaces that are necessary in order to create a product (e.g. food; architecture models; radiographic images; jewellery). In the case of classroom-based subjects, what matters is the creation of an &#8216;intangible' educational space, wherein the physical boundaries delimiting the class lose significance, when compared to the immaterial yet fundamental learning experience. However, in order to delve deeper into the rhythms of these entanglements and their affective dimensions, we argue that time-lapse photography in conjunction with walking interviews and narrative accounts of the lived experience together yield a rich and varied source of data to illuminate &#8216;the everyday' in the university.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This rhythmanalysis of the university, thus conceived and carried out, produced a much &#8216;livelier' account of what it actually means to teach, learn and experience the institutional space-time. Significantly, the articulation of the participants' experiences, gathered through narrative and audio-visual accounts, confirmed our concerns about tensions surrounding life in the contemporary university. These were cast in terms of &#8216;arrhythmic' drives and lamented as the principal source of anxiety in their everyday life. Yet, interestingly, the participants' accounts moved beyond well-rehearsed critiques of the neoliberal, accelerated university, revealing the ways in which teachers and learners adapt, recalibrate and recompose eurhythmia within the institution. Often, this is achieved through experiencing teaching and learning as immersive experiences that manage to temporarily suspend time and space. This emphasises how students and teachers can experience educational spaces as blurring the boundary between the physical and the mental. This escape from &#8216;the present' which Lefebvre describes as &#8216;a fact and effect of commerce' (Lefebvre 2004, p. 47) amounts to a suspension of externally imposed rhythms. For Lefebvre, the present is in tension with &#8216;presence' which &#8216;situates itself in the poetic: value, creation, situatedness in the world and not only in the relations of exchange' (ibid. p. 47). An important aspect of educational experience, presence is a reflexive state of mind and being that steps outside the rhythm of the everyday and subjects the world to a critical gaze.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Within this suspension, the appropriation of the time and space of learning becomes synonymous with the enjoyment and meaningfulness of the experience. An excerpt of the interview with the senior lecturer in CDT epitomises it:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;True designers, like I have been&#8230; I have my own company and I've worked through the night, many times&#8230;So, I think that's because you have a passion and a love for what you are doing and I think I just transfer that into teaching. And the people that I teach are designers in their own right&#8230;so they are used to working long hours&#8230;so it's a whole cultural, personal concept of what work means to us as designers. If you think of fashion designers, they just work until they drop if they've got a show on. And so do product designers. And so we grow up with that artistic view&#8230;it's the adrenaline. &lt;i&gt;The boundaries go&#8230;and the space boundaries go. So as a designer you want to be in your workshop or your work space at any time of the day. &lt;/i&gt;(Ann, SL CDT)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This view resonates strongly with Jan Masschelein's (2011) conceptualisation of education as a form of &#8216;undestined, suspended' time between past and future and with the idea of the university conceived as a permeable time-space shelter, wherein its participants produce, negotiate and re-calibrate their rhythms continually, to recover a sense of purpose and passionate attachment to their experiences.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_5&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Concluding Remarks&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In this chapter we have demonstrated the philosophical appeal and methodological potential of rhythmanalysis as an instrument to advance socio-cultural and historical research. When applied through a combination of experimental methods and techniques, it allows an exploration of the fluidity of the social as it unfolds through (human) experience and interaction. The strength of this method, as observed by Chen, lies precisely in the fact that:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Rhythmanalysis does not start from the &#8216;cultural' or the &#8216;political', rather it looks at the concrete social relations and exchanges exercised by the timing- spacing practices of social agents. This puts forward the nomadic nature of rhythmanalysis as a method, since there are no disciplinary boundaries which delimit the trajectories of materialities. The abstract demarcations of social fields are collapsed in the rhythmanalytical mode of exploring the connection of experiences. These specific modes of analysis indicate that rhythmanalysis is highly responsive to methodological discussion which calls for research that situates itself &lt;i&gt;amidst &lt;/i&gt;as opposed to &lt;i&gt;above &lt;/i&gt;social phenomena. (Chen, 2017, p.7)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Our pilot project approached therefore the analysis of the contemporary university from the angle of the &#8216;concrete social relations and exchanges exercised by the timing-spacing practices' of its social agents: teachers and students. To this end we devised a multi-method research design that would ideally enhance our ability to perceive, contrast and critique the different rhythms playing out in the three campuses of the university selected as a case study. The combination of audio-visually recorded (accompanied) walking interviews, semi-structured interviews and the extensive use of time-lapse photography proved effective in revealing and unpacking the significance of time space and affect in the daily co-production of knowledge by teachers and learners. Significantly, this experiment showed how participants carve out zones of spatio-temporal &#8216;suspension' within their practice as strategic and existential devices through which they manage to reconfigure islands of eurhythmia within anxiety-ridden academic landscapes (Gill, 2009; Loveday 2018). In this respect, the experimental nature of rhythmanalysis revealed itself in the modalities in which its methodological orientations helped redefine and refine the nature of &#8216;the problem' investigated: by reconceptualising the university as a time-space shelter, we started moving beyond sterile critiques of the university (e.g. fast academy versus slow professor movement) to embrace a qualitative, experientially rich, embodied account of &#8216;what goes on' within the institution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Based on the initial findings of this pilot project, a promising future development could involve addressing the relationship between university, rhythm and future. The anticipatory and transformative potential inherent to rhythm needs careful investigation. Considering that teaching and learning in higher education are fundamentally and increasingly future-facing and future-oriented, the university could be used as a laboratory to explore and test ideas related to rhythm and anticipation, and to promote alternative temporalities &lt;i&gt;in &lt;/i&gt;and &lt;i&gt;for &lt;/i&gt;education (Wozniak, 2017; Neary &amp; Amsler, 2014; Bennett &amp; Burke, 2017).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
In other words, education could become a form of suspension &lt;i&gt;from &lt;/i&gt;the dominant time-economies and, crucially, an incubator &lt;i&gt;for &lt;/i&gt;possible, rather than probable futures (Poli, 2014). Building on the analyses of Wozniak (2017) and Masschlein (2011), the notions of suspension and incubation become forms of active resistance against conceptualisations of education as &#8216;dressage' (training). The linearity of rhythms experienced as set programmes, fixed hours, and institutional targets in the contemporary university enforces the dominant time-space economy that delimits and inhibits spontaneity, creativity and innovation. The liberating power of education lies in its ability to disrupt dressage by setting time free, as we have seen in the staff and students' attempts to recompose eurhythmia through immersive experiences of teaching and learning. Within such time-space shelters, counter-hegemonic rhythms are at play that can produce education as an emancipatory practice. Once the dominant time/debt economies are suspended, we can witness what Masschlein calls a &#8216;profanation' of time. This is a condition in which time, space and things are separated from their habitual use: in this separateness things become &#8216;communized', open to common use and un-finished:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As education presents the world once more, unfinished, it turns the world into a common thing, and puts students as equals in the position to begin. This is, if one would like, the political dimension of &lt;i&gt;schol&#232;&lt;/i&gt;. It needs no political doctrine and guidance&#8212;communist or not&#8212;to become political. The time and space of &lt;i&gt;schol&#232; &lt;/i&gt; has an end in itself or, which comes to the same, is a pure means, a medium. (Masschlein, 2011, p.4-5)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In line with our analysis and findings, Masschlein's understanding of education is profoundly rhythmic. It is indeed viewed as a practice that &#8216;entails the tracing of &lt;i&gt;spaces&lt;/i&gt;, the arranging and the addressing of &lt;i&gt;matter&lt;/i&gt; and the editing of &lt;i&gt;time &lt;/i&gt;that make &lt;i&gt;schol&#232; &lt;/i&gt; (study, exercise, thought) happen' (ibid. p. 6). It is this type of freedom, granted by a condition of suspension, profanation and attention to the world, that will allow the incubation of alternative educational futures.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_6&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;Vostal, F. (2016)&lt;i&gt; Accelerating Academia. The Changing Structure of Academic Time,&lt;/i&gt; Palgrave Studies in Science, Knowledge and Policy&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;J. Wajcman, &amp; N. Dodd (Eds.), &lt;i&gt;The sociology of speed. Digital, organizational and social temporalities. &lt;/i&gt;Oxford: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Wood, D. (2000) &#8216; Time-shelters &#8211; an essay in the poetics of time' in Durie, R. (ed.) (2010) &lt;i&gt;Time &amp; the Instant. Essays in the physics and philosophy of time. &lt;/i&gt;Clinamen Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Wozniak, J.T. (2017), &#8216;Towards a Rhythmanalysis of debt dressage: Education as rhythmic resistance in everyday indebted life', &lt;i&gt;Policy Futures in Education&lt;/i&gt;, Vol. 15(4) 495-508.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb1&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 1&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;See the works of Edensor (2010a; 2010b; 2011); Edensor and Bowdler (2015); Vannini (2012); Edensor and Holloway (2008); Spinney (2010).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>Interpreting crises &amp; transformative processes as complex &amp; rhythmic phenomena
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		<dc:date>2022-05-30T07:44:19Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:creator>Michel Alhadeff-Jones
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&lt;p&gt;Interpreting crises and transformative processes as complex and rhythmic phenomena A webinar with Prof. Michel Alhadeff-Jones (Teachers College, Columbia University (USA)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


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&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;CENTER&gt;&lt;i&gt;Interpreting crises and transformative processes as complex and rhythmic phenomena&lt;/i&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;A webinar with Prof. Michel Alhadeff-Jones (Teachers College, Columbia University (USA)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/CENTER&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>Les rythmes universitaires &#8211; Conf&#233;rence introductive
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		<dc:date>2020-03-18T08:00:00Z</dc:date>
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		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Elisabeth Letertre
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		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Cet article pr&#233;sente une version r&#233;dig&#233;e du texte de la conf&#233;rence introductive pr&#233;sent&#233;e par &#201;lisabeth Letertre au Colloque Th&#233;l&#232;me &#8211; 29 novembre 2019 &#8211; universit&#233; d'Angers. Le premier colloque Th&#233;l&#232;me s'est d&#233;roul&#233; le 29 novembre 2019. Th&#233;l&#232;me est un projet de l'universit&#233; d'Angers et de l'universit&#233; du Mans, dans le cadre de l'Appel &#224; Projet (Nouveaux Cursus &#224; l'Universit&#233;) du troisi&#232;me Programme d'investissements d'avenir (PIA3). Ce colloque avait pour th&#232;me, les rythmes &#224; (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Pourquoi ce th&#232;me ?&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;Pourquoi ce th&#232;me ?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Quel temps fait-il &#224; l'universit&#233; ?&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;Quel temps fait-il &#224; l'universit&#233; ?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Rythmes, de quoi parle-t-on ?&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;Rythmes, de quoi parle-t-on ?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Cet article pr&#233;sente une version r&#233;dig&#233;e du texte de la conf&#233;rence introductive pr&#233;sent&#233;e par &#201;lisabeth Letertre au Colloque Th&#233;l&#232;me &#8211; 29 novembre 2019 &#8211; universit&#233; d'Angers.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class='spip_document_4614 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L395xH563/-79-d8355.png?1711396778' width='395' height='563' alt='' /&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le premier colloque Th&#233;l&#232;me s'est d&#233;roul&#233; le 29 novembre 2019. Th&#233;l&#232;me est un projet de l'universit&#233; d'Angers et de l'universit&#233; du Mans, dans le cadre de l'Appel &#224; Projet (Nouveaux Cursus &#224; l'Universit&#233;) du troisi&#232;me Programme d'investissements d'avenir (PIA3)&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;L'action &#171; Nouveaux cursus &#224; l'universit&#233; &#187; a pour objectif de soutenir les (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-1&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ce colloque avait pour th&#232;me, les rythmes &#224; l'universit&#233;, une notion particuli&#232;rement complexe que l'on va tenter, dans cet article, d'&#233;claircir, en mobilisant plusieurs disciplines de recherche. Cette question des rythmes peut &#234;tre envisag&#233;e dans le contexte plus vaste de bouleversement des rythmes de vie et de travail, qui d&#233;passe tr&#232;s largement les simples consid&#233;rations d'organisation du temps, mais qui touche aussi au contenu des enseignements, &#224; la mani&#232;re d'enseigner, aux r&#244;les et aux missions de tous les personnels au service des &#233;tudiants.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Pourquoi ce th&#232;me ?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'action &#8216;Nouveaux cursus &#224; l'universit&#233;' (NCU), telle que d&#233;finie dans l'appel &#224; projet de l'Agence Nationale de la Recherche, en f&#233;vrier 2017, orientait la r&#233;flexion sur le sujet du rythme des cursus. Il &#233;tait demand&#233; de r&#233;fl&#233;chir &#224; des programmes de grande ampleur, tirant parti des possibilit&#233;s offertes par le syst&#232;me LMD en mati&#232;re de modularisation des enseignements et de &lt;strong&gt;gestion des rythmes&lt;/strong&gt; et des modalit&#233;s de certification&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt; Le texte de l'appel &#224; projet pr&#233;cise : l'action NCU se propose de d&#233;velopper &#171; &lt;i&gt;des d&#233;marches nouvelles, plus flexibles relatives &#224; l'organisation des enseignements, aux contenus des formations, aux approches p&#233;dagogiques, aux &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;rythmes d'acquisition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;, aux &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;dur&#233;es des parcours&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; et aux modalit&#233;s de validation des connaissances et des comp&#233;tences. Les projets doivent permettre d'adapter l'offre universitaire &#224; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;une individualisation des parcours et des rythmes de formation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; dans un contexte de mobilit&#233; professionnelle accrue &#187;.&lt;/i&gt; Plus loin dans le texte, le recours au num&#233;rique est signal&#233; afin d'optimiser le temps de formation pour les publics en formation initiale ou continue ayant des disponibilit&#233;s limit&#233;es (salari&#233;s en reprise d'&#233;tudes, &#233;tudiants salari&#233;s, sportifs de haut niveau, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En octobre 2017, la concertation sur l'accueil et la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants voulue par Fr&#233;d&#233;rique Vidal, a abouti &#224; une s&#233;rie de propositions concr&#232;tes remises &#224; la ministre par Daniel Fil&#226;tre&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Daniel FIL&#194;TRE, R&#233;former le premier cycle de l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-2&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, rapporteur g&#233;n&#233;ral de la concertation, dont une alerte sur &lt;strong&gt;&#171; les rythmes de formation ou plus exactement l'&#233;talement des &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&#233;tudes, ou leur s&#233;quencement&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;, qui sont peu pris en compte alors que les &#233;tudiants r&#233;clament &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;plus de souplesse et d'accompagnement&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ce m&#234;me automne 2017, le Think Tank Terra Nova produit un rapport&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Terra Nova, Etudes sup&#233;rieures, rythmes choisis, rythmes subis, Rapport par (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-3&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; faisant le constat du nombre croissant d'&#233;tudiants en d&#233;calage avec les rythmes th&#233;oriques de l'universit&#233;. &lt;i&gt;&#171; L'universit&#233; ne tient pas compte du fait que, pour presque la moiti&#233; d'entre eux, ils travaillent en m&#234;me temps qu'ils m&#232;nent leurs &#233;tudes. Elle les prive en outre de la possibilit&#233; de m&#251;rir leur choix d'orientation, de varier leurs parcours, de bifurquer si leurs choix ne sont pas assez assur&#233;s. &#187; &lt;/i&gt;Terra Nova propose&lt;i&gt; &#171; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;une r&#233;organisation des temps universitaires. Il faut reprendre la question des rythmes universitaires &#224; toutes les &#233;chelles de temps : la journ&#233;e, la semaine, le semestre, le cycle et la vie enti&#232;re (formation tout au long de la vie)&lt;/strong&gt; &#187;. Le rapport de Terra Nova alerte : l'universit&#233; devra trouver sa place dans les dispositifs de formation tout au long de la vie. Il se veut aussi rassurant &lt;strong&gt; :&lt;/strong&gt; &#171; &lt;i&gt;Sans grande r&#233;forme l&#233;gislative chamboulant l'ensemble de notre syst&#232;me d'enseignement sup&#233;rieur, il est possible d'introduire &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;plus de souplesse dans l'organisation des cours et des examens, par la modularisation effective des unit&#233;s d'enseignement et un syst&#232;me de validation des cycles d'&#233;tude repens&#233;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;strong&gt;. &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
C'est &#224; la m&#234;me p&#233;riode que les projets NCU de la vague 1 sont d&#233;pos&#233;s&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Le 13 octobre 2017, a &#233;t&#233; communiqu&#233;e la liste des 17 laur&#233;ats de la (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-4&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Puis suivront en mars 2018, la loi relative &#224; l'orientation et &#224; la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants (ORE) mettant en avant les cursus de premier cycle r&#233;nov&#233; et en juillet 2018, l'arr&#234;t&#233; Licence, dont l'article 8 qui d&#233;taille la charge de travail pour l'&#233;tudiant &#171; &lt;i&gt;comprise entre 4500 et 5400 heures sur&lt;/i&gt; l&lt;i&gt;'ensemble du parcours de formation de licence correspondant au minimum &#224; l'&#233;quivalent de 1500 heures d'enseignement et d'encadrement p&#233;dagogique. Ces r&#233;f&#233;rences horaires et le d&#233;ploiement des diverses activit&#233;s de formation sont d&#233;clin&#233;s et adapt&#233;s notamment en fonction des modalit&#233;s p&#233;dagogiques et &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;des rythmes de formation &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;mis en &#339;uvre afin de tenir compte de la &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;personnalisation des parcours&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;, de la diversit&#233; des profils et des objectifs poursuivis par les &#233;tudiants &#187;. &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Fr&#233;d&#233;rique Vidal, souhaite desserrer la contrainte et la forme temporelle propre &#224; ce cursus. Dans son discours&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Pr&#233;sentation du nouvel arr&#234;t&#233; Licence au CNESER, 9 juillet 2018.&#034; id=&#034;nh2-5&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; au Conseil national de l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et de la recherche, ce m&#234;me mois de juillet, elle se dit convaincue que la personnalisation passe par &lt;i&gt;&#171; la &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;prise en compte du rythme qui convient &#224; chacun &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; : demander &#224; tous les &#233;tudiants de r&#233;ussir la m&#234;me Licence au cours des trois m&#234;mes ann&#233;es, c'est ne pas voir que certains ont besoin de plus. &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;De plus de temps&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;, bien s&#251;r, mais aussi de plus d'accompagnement : c'est cela que nous allons d&#233;sormais pouvoir leur offrir ; la nouvelle Licence permettra encore &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;d'am&#233;nager plus largement les rythmes d'&#233;tudes&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; pour prendre en compte les contraintes sp&#233;cifiques de certains &#233;tudiants : activit&#233; professionnelle, situation de handicap, sport de haut niveau... &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En f&#233;vrier 2019, dans le prolongement de la publication de l'arr&#234;t&#233; licence, Fr&#233;d&#233;rique Vidal&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Courrier de Fr&#233;d&#233;rique VIDAL &#224; Michel COSNARD, Pr&#233;sident de l'HCERES, 25 (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-6&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; a invit&#233; le Haut Conseil de l'&#201;valuation de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Sup&#233;rieur &#224; faire &#233;voluer le r&#233;f&#233;rentiel d'&#233;valuation de la qualit&#233; en licence pour int&#233;grer les questions que se posent les &#233;tablissements en termes de contrat p&#233;dagogique de r&#233;ussite, de parcours personnalis&#233;s&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Avec le nouvel arr&#234;t&#233; Licence et les NCU, l'indicateur de r&#233;ussite &#8216;dur&#233;e des &#233;tudes' devient en effet bancal. &lt;i&gt;&#171; 39 % des &#233;tudiants scolaris&#233;s &#224; temps plein qui entament une licence r&#233;ussissent celle-ci &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;sans en d&#233;passer la dur&#233;e th&#233;orique&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;. Le taux de r&#233;ussite trois ans plus tard augmente pour atteindre 67 % &#187;,&lt;/i&gt; indiquait l'Organisation de Coop&#233;ration et de D&#233;veloppement &#201;conomiques dans son rapport annuel &#8216;Regard sur l'&#233;ducation' rendu public le 10 septembre 2019. La logique universitaire actuelle est que l'on obtienne son dipl&#244;me marche apr&#232;s marche, c'est-&#224;-dire semestre apr&#232;s semestre : les chiffres de r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants dans les universit&#233;s fran&#231;aises, dans les rapports du &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid71415/parcours-et-reussite-en-licence-et-en-master-a-l-universite.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;minist&#232;re de l'Enseignement sup&#233;rieur&lt;/a&gt;, sont des pourcentages d'&#233;tudiants entr&#233;s en premi&#232;re ann&#233;e de licence et ayant obtenu leur licence trois ans plus tard, ou avec une ann&#233;e suppl&#233;mentaire. Mais ce calcul ne tient plus, et l'HCERES prend note que la nouvelle licence ne sera plus structur&#233;e par ann&#233;es, mais selon des parcours individualis&#233;s avec l'objectif d'augmenter la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants. &#171; &lt;i&gt;Ces parcours &#224; la carte et &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cette nouvelle temporalit&#233;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt; vont rendre la mesure de la r&#233;ussite plus complexe qu'avant, o&#249; il suffisait de regarder le pourcentage d'&#233;tudiants qui passaient de L1 en L2, puis de L2 en L3, et finalement obtenaient leur licence. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Michel COSNARD, D&#233;p&#234;che AEF, 19 juillet 2019.&#034; id=&#034;nh2-7&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Le 18 septembre, Philippe Lalle, conseiller strat&#233;gique pour la p&#233;dagogie au MESRI annonce qu'un nouvel indicateur &lt;i&gt;&#171; va sortir prochainement &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-8&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Philippe LALLE, D&#233;p&#234;che AEF, 18 septembre 2019.&#034; id=&#034;nh2-8&#034;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Il s'agira &#171; &lt;i&gt;de suivre le nombre de cr&#233;dits ECTS qu'une cohorte d'&#233;tudiants obtient au bout de 6 mois, puis un an &#187;.&lt;/i&gt; La r&#233;ussite &#233;tudiante se mesurera sur le cumul de cr&#233;dits ECTS.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Parcours personnalis&#233;, diversit&#233; de cheminements individuels, rythmes adaptables, contrat de r&#233;ussite, la loi ORE souhaite op&#233;rer un changement de paradigme qui place en son centre l'&#233;tudiant. &lt;strong&gt;La licence est donc un dipl&#244;me en &#8216;refondation'.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Ce chantier de grande ampleur accorde beaucoup d'importance au rythme personnel de chaque &#233;tudiant. &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Quel temps fait-il &#224; l'universit&#233; ? &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Pour rappel, depuis le processus de Bologne, puis le d&#233;cret LMD du 8 avril 2002, les formations sont organis&#233;es en semestres. En 2010, dans le cadre des premiers effets du plan &#8216;R&#233;ussir en licence' lanc&#233; en 2009, la dur&#233;e de l'ann&#233;e universitaire a &#233;t&#233; allong&#233;e sur 10 mois, entra&#238;nant une nouvelle conception des rythmes universitaires plus respectueux du bien-&#234;tre &#233;tudiant, facteur de r&#233;ussite. Les &#233;tablissements ont &#233;t&#233; invit&#233;s &#224; adopter &lt;strong&gt;une charte sur les rythmes quotidiens et hebdomadaires des &#233;tudiants&lt;/strong&gt; (pause du midi, &#233;chelonnement des sorties de cours, limitation &#224; 4 h de la dur&#233;e d'un enseignement sans pause, meilleure r&#233;partition des cours sur la semaine de fa&#231;on &#224; limiter la dur&#233;e quotidienne d'enseignement, am&#233;nagement du temps des &#233;tudiants emp&#234;ch&#233;s)&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-9&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Par exemple : charte des rythmes adopt&#233;e &#224; l'universit&#233; Fran&#231;ois-Rabelais en (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-9&#034;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mais, nous n'avons pas r&#233;ellement assist&#233; &#224; un changement de l'unit&#233; de r&#233;f&#233;rence qui reste l'ann&#233;e, avec une organisation en deux p&#233;riodes de dur&#233;es variables. Le cycle &#8216;inscriptions, enseignements, examens, vacances' est immuable. Les &#233;tudiants sont oblig&#233;s de suivre un parcours &#224; dur&#233;e d&#233;finie pour acqu&#233;rir le dipl&#244;me (ils ne peuvent aller plus vite). Saeed Paivandi, chercheur en sciences de l'&#233;ducation d&#233;crit : &#171; &lt;i&gt;les programmes universitaires sont con&#231;us en fonction de ce temps quantitatif en privil&#233;giant une seule figure d'&#233;tudiant, motiv&#233;e, comp&#233;tente, bien orient&#233;e et &#224; temps plein. Un &#233;tudiant id&#233;al est celui qui fait son M1, M2, L3 en une ann&#233;e.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-10&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Rencontre avec Saeed PAIVANDI, Comprendre l'&#233;tudiant et sa temporalit&#233; pour (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-10&#034;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt; &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
D&#233;j&#224; dans les ann&#233;es 1980, Aniko Husti,&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;missionn&#233;e au conseil national des programmes, &#233;crivait que &#171; &lt;i&gt;l'utilisation du temps &#233;tait l'une des dimensions les plus p&#233;rim&#233;es de l'institution &#233;ducative &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-11&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Aniko HUSTI, La dynamique du temps scolaire, Hachette Education 1999 : &#171; Une (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-11&#034;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mais, le temps change &#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
D&#233;sormais, les c&#233;sures sont possibles dans le cursus, l'arr&#234;t&#233; licence permet l'&#233;clatement de la L1 en deux ann&#233;es : les &#8216;oui si' constituent un exemple de changement du premier cycle universitaire. Est-ce que le devenir de ces dispositifs se pose maintenant dans le contexte d'une &#233;volution de l'offre de formation des licences vers une v&#233;ritable flexibilisation des cursus lib&#233;r&#233;s de la r&#233;f&#233;rence annuelle ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_2&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Rythmes, de quoi parle-t-on ?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Selon le psychologue Fran&#231;ois Testu&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-12&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Fran&#231;ois TESTU, Rythmes de vie et rythmes scolaires, Aspects (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-12&#034;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, l'expression &#171; &lt;strong&gt;rythmes scolaires&lt;/strong&gt; &#187; renvoie soit aux variations p&#233;riodiques biologiques, physiques et psychologiques propres &#224; l'enfant en situation scolaire, soit aux emplois du temps et calendriers. Il s'agit ici d'une rythmicit&#233; environnementale, fix&#233;e, qui joue le r&#244;le de synchroniseur des rythmes biologiques et psychologiques. Les recherches en chronosciences permettent de d&#233;terminer quelles seraient les p&#233;riodes de la journ&#233;e o&#249; les enfants sont le plus r&#233;ceptifs &#224; tel type de savoir et quelle serait la meilleure mani&#232;re d'am&#233;nager notamment la journ&#233;e scolaire pour respecter leur propre rythme. Claire Leconte, enseignante-chercheur en psychologie de l'&#233;ducation &#224; l'universit&#233; de Lille, refuse d'utiliser cette expression : &#171; &lt;i&gt;rien dans le scolaire n'est rythm&#233;, au sens d'&#233;v&#233;nements qui se reproduiraient &#224; l'identique en fonction d'une certaine p&#233;riodicit&#233; &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-13&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Claire Leconte, Des rythmes de vie aux rythmes scolaires : Une histoire sans (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-13&#034;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Elle reproche &#224; l'expression son caract&#232;re r&#233;ducteur&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;qui peut conduire &#224; donner &#224; ces &#171; am&#233;nagements &#187; un pouvoir miraculeux. Il ne suffit pas de modifier des emplois du temps pour que subitement la r&#233;ussite scolaire s'am&#233;liore ! Claire Leconte parle plut&#244;t de &lt;strong&gt;l'organisation des temps de vie,&lt;/strong&gt; qui oblige &#224; se pr&#233;occuper de tous les temps et &#224; s'int&#233;resser aux contenus de ces temps. Le terme &lt;strong&gt;&#8216;polyrythmie'&lt;/strong&gt; utilis&#233; par le psychologue Francis Lesourd&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-14&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Francis LESOURD, Construire et habiter le temps de l'enseignement en ligne, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-14&#034;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, permet d'englober ces temps multiples : le temps acad&#233;mique, le temps studieux, le temps personnel, social et familial, et pour quelques &#233;tudiants, le temps professionnel.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Avant de parler des rythmes, il semble opportun de s'attarder sur ces temps, d'observer comment les temporalit&#233;s s'enchev&#234;trent, dans un contexte num&#233;rique, connect&#233; et d&#233;synchronis&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_3&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Que fait l'&#233;tudiant de ses temps ?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'organisation temporelle acad&#233;mique permet une premi&#232;re description du&lt;strong&gt; rapport au temps des &#233;tudiants&lt;/strong&gt;. Le cadre temporel de l'universit&#233; est r&#233;sum&#233; dans &lt;strong&gt;l'emploi du temps&lt;/strong&gt; (EDT) que chacun attend &#224; chaque rentr&#233;e. L'EDT est bien l'outil le plus utilis&#233; dans l'Environnement Num&#233;rique de Travail Etudiant (ENT) : il signale &lt;strong&gt;la pr&#233;sence attendue en cours.&lt;/strong&gt; C'est un sujet r&#233;current dans les verbatim des &#233;tudiants, issus des enqu&#234;tes formation. L'emploi du temps est souvent jug&#233; &lt;i&gt;&#171; mal r&#233;parti, parfois trop charg&#233;, parfois trou&#233;, avec des temps morts, &#8216;4h dans une journ&#233;e de 8h &#224; 19h', des creux en &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;milieu de semestres &#187;&lt;/i&gt;, semestres qui sont parfois &lt;i&gt;&#171; d&#233;s&#233;quilibr&#233;s &#187;&lt;/i&gt;, une ann&#233;e &lt;i&gt;&#171; courte &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&#8230; et les sessions d'examen qui donnent la cadence.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Andr&#233; Giordan, chercheur en sciences de l'&#233;ducation, d&#233;nonce le &#171; &lt;i&gt;sempiternel cadre organisateur de l'&#233;cole : une discipline &#8211; un cours &#8211; une heure &#8211; un enseignant &#187;&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-15&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Andr&#233; GIORDAN, Apprendre ! Belin, 1998. &#171; A terme, il s'agit [&#8230;] de sortir (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-15&#034;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Pour Aniko Husti, l'emploi du temps est devenu &#171; un st&#233;r&#233;otype &#187; : &lt;i&gt;&#171; l'emploi du temps, comme point de convergence d'une conception de l'enseignement est le dernier bastion &#224; prendre ; ou le premier, pour commencer un processus de transformation en cha&#238;ne. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-16&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Aniko HUSTI, La dynamique du temps scolaire, Hachette Education 1999. Aniko (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-16&#034;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En 2001, dans leur rapport au Ministre de l'&#201;ducation nationale, Dominique Borne et Fran&#231;ois Perret, de l'Inspection G&#233;n&#233;rale de l'Education Nationale, les rejoignent : &#171; A la diff&#233;rence de la question des rythmes scolaires, celle de l'organisation du temps de l'enseignement ne para&#238;t pas avoir retenu l'attention des historiens de l'&#233;ducation. Tout se passe comme si le temps scolaire, organis&#233; autour d'unit&#233;s fixes (l'heure de cours) et de la r&#233;p&#233;tition hebdomadaire d'un m&#234;me sch&#233;ma, apparaissait comme une donn&#233;e immuable, quasi naturelle, qu'il convient d'accepter comme telle et qui ne serait pas justiciable d'une r&#233;flexion particuli&#232;re. &#187;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-17&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Dominique BORNE, Fran&#231;ois PERRET, IGEN, L'emploi du temps des &#233;l&#232;ves au (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-17&#034;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ainsi, il faut, dans ce cadre compos&#233; de strates temporelles, soupeser l'&#233;paisseur des tranches horaires, interroger la dur&#233;e des cours, le volume horaire hebdomadaire, le d&#233;coupage de l'ann&#233;e en semestre, l'empilement d'ann&#233;es en cycles, l'&#233;talement de ce &lt;strong&gt;temps prescrit&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Li&#233; aux disponibilit&#233;s des enseignants et des locaux, le temps g&#233;n&#232;re un ensemble de contraintes. La rythmique de &#171; l'heure de cours &#187; est le principe organisateur de la vie p&#233;dagogique et l'unit&#233; de base pour la d&#233;finition des obligations des enseignants. D'o&#249; le casse-t&#234;te des concepteurs d'emplois du temps.&lt;/p&gt;
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A partir de cet emploi du temps collectif qui cr&#233;e un pr&#233;sent commun et quadrille les choses &#224; faire &#224; l'universit&#233;, chaque &#233;tudiant va peu &#224; peu structurer les rythmes qui composent sa vie : le &lt;strong&gt;temps de pr&#233;sence en cours,&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;le temps hebdomadaire consacr&#233; &#224; l'&#233;tude&lt;/strong&gt; fractionn&#233; ou au contraire concentr&#233; en plages de longue dur&#233;e qui vont venir fa&#231;onner et conditionner &lt;strong&gt;le temps libre&lt;/strong&gt;. Qui pour certains sera de loisir et pour d'autres, salari&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pour le sociologue Bernard Lahire, les deux variables &#171; &lt;strong&gt;temps de travail personnel&lt;/strong&gt; &#187; et &#171; &lt;strong&gt;assiduit&#233;&lt;/strong&gt; &#187; constituent une &#171; &lt;i&gt;socialisation silencieuse&lt;/i&gt; &#187;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-18&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Bernard LAHIRE, Les mani&#232;res d'&#233;tudier, Cahier de l'Observatoire de la vie (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-18&#034;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; qui marque les diff&#233;rences de r&#233;ussite dans le parcours universitaire. Le sociologue Alain Coulon&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;r&#233;sume : &#234;tre &#233;tudiant, &lt;i&gt;&#171; c'est acqu&#233;rir cette comp&#233;tence qui permet de reconna&#238;tre quel type et quelle quantit&#233; de travail intellectuel il faut fournir et dans quel d&#233;lai &#187;&lt;/i&gt;, c'est passer par le &lt;i&gt;&#171; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;temps de l'&#233;tranget&#233; &#187;&lt;/strong&gt; sans rep&#232;res et le &lt;i&gt;&#171; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;strong&gt;temps de l'apprentissage &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;i&gt;des r&#232;gles, codes et rythmes &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-19&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Alain COULON, Le m&#233;tier d'&#233;tudiant, Paris : Economica-Anthropos, 2005&#034; id=&#034;nh2-19&#034;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; : l'affiliation universitaire est conditionn&#233;e &#224; l'affiliation &#224; la temporalit&#233; de l'universit&#233;.&lt;i&gt; &#171; Entrer &#224; l'universit&#233; &#187; &lt;/i&gt;souligne encore l'auteur,&lt;i&gt; &#171; c'est explorer et vouloir volontairement se plonger dans les codes qui en d&#233;finissent l'organisation. Ces codes sont souvent opaques, voire illisibles &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pour Saeed Paivandi, &#171; &lt;i&gt;l'existence d'un certain impens&#233; vis-&#224;-vis de la temporalit&#233; &#233;tudiante est un mal fran&#231;ais &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-20&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Rencontre avec Saeed PAIVANDI, Comprendre l'&#233;tudiant et sa temporalit&#233; pour (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-20&#034;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Les temporalit&#233;s universitaires sont diffus&#233;es de mani&#232;re implicite. &lt;i&gt;&#171; Le moment de l'universit&#233; n'est pas pr&#233;par&#233;, compris et v&#233;cu de la m&#234;me mani&#232;re par les diff&#233;rents groupes d'&#233;tudiants &#187;&lt;/i&gt; : pour certains il fait sens, pour d'autres, il est sem&#233; d'emb&#251;ches. D'ailleurs, ces &#233;tudiants de licence sont plut&#244;t demandeurs d'une routine temporelle qui constitue une forme de cadrage, une r&#233;f&#233;rence temporelle stable et qui leur offre un sentiment de coh&#233;rence et de pr&#233;visibilit&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Des recherches comparent la structuration temporelle des formations et leur effet socialisateur plus ou moins intense : la sociologue&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;Muriel Darmon montre par exemple comment les classes pr&#233;paratoires&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-21&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Muriel DARMON, Classes pr&#233;paratoires, la fabrique d'une jeunesse dominante, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-21&#034;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; fa&#231;onnent des &#233;tudiants par un apprentissage de la gestion de temporalit&#233;s multiples dans une logique de l'urgence (qui pour certains deviendra une addiction temporelle &#224; l'urgence).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Le rapport au temps est d&#233;termin&#233; par la structure sociale (la famille, l'&#233;cole&#8230;). Il s'exprime sous la forme de pratiques, d'habilet&#233;s, de repr&#233;sentations, de &lt;strong&gt;perceptions&lt;/strong&gt; et de sensations. Car si le temps est d&#233;fini collectivement, au travers de rythmes, sa &lt;strong&gt;perception &lt;/strong&gt;varie en fonction des exp&#233;riences personnelles v&#233;cues.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ainsi, quelques &#233;tudiants, pour parler de leurs d&#233;buts &#224; l'universit&#233;, invoquent le souvenir du passage du primaire au coll&#232;ge qui les a oblig&#233;s &#224; se plier &#224; un changement important de rythme. Ils insistent alors sur la &lt;strong&gt;libert&#233; &lt;/strong&gt;consid&#233;rable dont ils jouissent compar&#233; au lyc&#233;e : comment occuper et organiser son temps journalier et hebdomadaire ? Car l'apparente libert&#233; est un pi&#232;ge, &lt;i&gt;&#171; on est dans un faux rythme &#187;&lt;/i&gt;, il faut r&#233;sister &#224; la d&#233;sorganisation, ils craignent alors la dispersion des cours, redoutent les intercours, temps d'attente inutiles. Pourquoi se lever &#224; 7 heures du matin, si les cours ne d&#233;butent pas avant 14 heures ? Le temps universitaire est &lt;strong&gt;&#171; un temps &#233;lastique &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-22&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;St&#233;phane BEAUD, &#171; Le temps &#233;lastique. &#201;tudiants de &#171; cit&#233; &#187; et examens (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-22&#034;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, selon l'expression du sociologue St&#233;phane Beaud, o&#249; l'&#233;tudiant en recherche d'ancrage, parfois isol&#233;, doit construire lui-m&#234;me son cadre temporel, trouver son rythme, alors que les modes de contr&#244;le et de suivi se rel&#226;chent. Les &#233;tudiants s'inventent alors des pratiques de travail caract&#233;ris&#233;es par leur irr&#233;gularit&#233;, surtout lors des r&#233;visions. Et&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;quand une temporalit&#233; empi&#232;te sur les autres, cela g&#233;n&#232;re tension, angoisse, et culpabilit&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La ma&#238;trise du &lt;strong&gt;temps libre&lt;/strong&gt; est bien l'une des premi&#232;res sources de difficult&#233;s. Les &#233;tudiants expriment leur perception de ce temps d&#233;structur&#233; qu'il trouve selon les activit&#233;s trop court ou bien long et ennuyeux avec le sentiment de le perdre quand ils ne courent pas apr&#232;s, juste avant les examens. Le temps est utile ou inutile, passant lentement ou vite. Pour Jean-Michel G&#233;nevaux et Samuel Gougeon, enseignants-chercheurs en physique, &#224; l'universit&#233; du Mans, il est illusoire de penser que &lt;strong&gt;le travail personnel consenti hors s&#233;ances de cours&lt;/strong&gt; permet de gommer les diff&#233;rences de rythmes en cours&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-23&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Jean-Michel GENEVAUX, Samuel GOUGEON, Adrien PELAT, Jean-Pierre DALMONT, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-23&#034;&gt;23&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Selon l'&#233;conomiste Louis L&#233;vy-Garboua&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-24&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Louis LEVY-GARBOUA, Les demandes de l'&#233;tudiant ou les contradictions de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-24&#034;&gt;24&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;ce temps librement consacr&#233; &#224; l'&#233;tude&lt;/strong&gt; fluctue car il est &#224; mettre en relation avec la perception qu'ont les &#233;tudiants de leurs perspectives de gain, notamment professionnelles, face &#224; la valeur relative du dipl&#244;me sur le march&#233; de l'emploi. Alain Coulon le rejoint : certains &#233;tudiants &#171; &lt;i&gt;calculent leur cursus en fonction de leurs strat&#233;gies d'orientation dans le temps &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-25&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Alain COULON, Le m&#233;tier d'&#233;tudiant, Paris : Economica-Anthropos, 2005&#034; id=&#034;nh2-25&#034;&gt;25&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt; Pour Jean Perrot&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-26&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Jean PERROT, Les influences des caract&#233;ristiques de l'offre d'&#233;ducation sur (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-26&#034;&gt;26&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, un autre &#233;conomiste : l'&#233;tudiant affecte son temps aux mati&#232;res qui lui rapportent le plus de b&#233;n&#233;fices scolaires et d&#233;laisse les mati&#232;res pour lesquelles sa rentabilit&#233; est faible.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mais pour Saeed Paivandi, qui d&#233;nonce la vitesse comme valeur absolue, le temps perdu n'est pas un temps gaspill&#233; : la lenteur peut &#234;tre une solution pour les personnes qui ne trouvent pas leur chemin ou n'arrivent pas &#224; &#233;laborer leur projet de vie&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-27&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Saeed PAIVANDI : &#171; le moment de l'universit&#233; implique une vraie qu&#234;te de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-27&#034;&gt;27&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
L'observation des usages du temps libre par les &#233;tudiants r&#233;v&#232;le cette exp&#233;rience d'un temps ind&#233;termin&#233; et mouvant. Des travaux&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-28&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Mariangela ROSELLI, Nathalie CHAUVAC, Sa&#239;d JMEL, Le temps libre des (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-28&#034;&gt;28&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; avancent que &lt;i&gt;&#171; les &#233;tudiants qui ont un emploi du temps serr&#233; et institutionnellement scand&#233; sont aussi ceux qui sont le plus engag&#233;s dans le sport, la culture ou l'activit&#233; associative et qui r&#233;ussissent le plus et le mieux (&#8230;) les &#233;tudiants apprennent &#224; ma&#238;triser leur temps et &#224; le structurer. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Les travaux sur les conditions de vie des &#233;tudiants, notamment le rapport d'activit&#233; 2015-2017 de l'Observatoire National de la Vie Etudiante qui contient un chapitre sur les rythmes d'&#233;tudes, nous &#233;clairent sur les rapports au temps qui naissent de la combinaison de ces exp&#233;riences temporelles subies ou choisies par les &#233;tudiants. Quels arbitrages font les &#233;tudiants entre les divers usages du temps ?&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-29&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Sur les d&#233;terminants de ce processus d'allocation temporelle, Alain FERNEX, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-29&#034;&gt;29&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Comment et pourquoi d&#233;cident-ils d'accorder plus de temps &#224; telle ou telle activit&#233; ? Comment s'adaptent-ils aux contraintes temporelles ? Comment g&#232;rent-ils le temps dans ce monde d&#233;synchronis&#233;, au &#171; &lt;strong&gt;pr&#233;sent hypertrophi&#233; &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-30&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Jean-Pierre BOUTINET, Penser l'accompagnement adulte, Presses Universitaires (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-30&#034;&gt;30&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; comme le qualifie le psychosociologue Jean-Pierre Boutinet ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ces enqu&#234;tes s'accordent en effet &#224; montrer l'h&#233;t&#233;rog&#233;n&#233;it&#233; d'une population &#233;tudiante aux conditions d'&#233;tudes et aux conduites temporelles tr&#232;s diversifi&#233;es. &lt;i&gt;&#171; Les diff&#233;renciations internes selon les fili&#232;res repr&#233;sentent par ailleurs une cl&#233; de lecture indispensable &#224; la compr&#233;hension des nouvelles formes d'in&#233;galit&#233;s dans le sup&#233;rieur &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-31&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;S&#233;raphin ALAVA, Marc ROMAINVILLE, Les pratiques d'&#233;tude, entre socialisation (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-31&#034;&gt;31&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. En 2017, Richard Gaillard, enseignant-chercheur en sociologie et Franck Rexand-Galais, enseignant-chercheur en psychologie, publient une observation d'envergure portant sur les conditions de vie de la population &#233;tudiante de l'universit&#233; d'Angers, r&#233;alis&#233;e au moyen d'enqu&#234;tes quantitatives entre 2008 et 2015&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-32&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Richard GAILLARD, Franck REXAND-GALAIS (dir.), Christophe DANIEL, Christian (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-32&#034;&gt;32&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, compl&#233;t&#233;e par les &#233;tudes de J&#233;r&#244;me Prugneau et de Christian Pihet (tous les deux enseignants-chercheurs en g&#233;ographie) et de Muriel Travers et de Christophe Daniel&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;(enseignants-chercheurs en &#233;conomie)&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt; : les questions de temporalit&#233; et d'espaces v&#233;cus par la population &#233;tudiante sont envisag&#233;es &#224; la lumi&#232;re des enjeux que constituent les d&#233;placements, le choix d'un mode de transport, les espaces de vie, le logement ou les &lt;strong&gt;budgets-temps&lt;/strong&gt; attribu&#233;s aux diff&#233;rentes activit&#233;s. Les donn&#233;es recueillies qui permettent d'analyser comment les &#233;tudiants n&#233;gocient au quotidien des temporalit&#233;s qui peuvent &#234;tre v&#233;cues comme conflictuelles, sont d'une grande richesse. Richard Gaillard souligne par ailleurs comment le temps et la libert&#233; de son usage peuvent constituer des objets de propri&#233;t&#233; sociale&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-33&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Richard GAILLARD, Enjeux des changements de temporalit&#233; dans la mise en (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-33&#034;&gt;33&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Il est par exemple difficile de parler de temps &#224; l'universit&#233; sans &#233;voquer la situation des &#233;tudiants salari&#233;s, de leurs parfois doubles journ&#233;es ou celles des &#233;tudiants sensibles au risque de pr&#233;carit&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ces chercheurs consid&#232;rent que l'ensemble complexe de ces temporalit&#233;s peut influencer fortement les parcours d'&#233;tudes. Leurs recherches nous permettent de prendre conscience que les &#233;tudiants changent et que la r&#233;ussite s'envisage autrement. Dans le m&#234;me sens, les travaux de B&#233;n&#233;dicte Froment au sein de l'universit&#233; de Tours interrogent : &lt;i&gt;&#171; est-ce que l'implication temporelle des &#233;tudiants dans l'activit&#233; universitaire observ&#233;e dans l'articulation entre les emplois du temps de la formation, les temps personnels de travail studieux et les contraintes li&#233;es aux modes de vie &#233;tudiants jouent un r&#244;le significatif dans la r&#233;ussite ? &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-34&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Philippe CORDAZZO, Christine GUEGNARD, S&#233;verine LANDRIER, Etudes, gal&#232;res et (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-34&#034;&gt;34&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Les neurosciences cognitives apportent &#233;galement un compl&#233;ment de connaissances : Gr&#233;goire Borst, professeur de psychologie du d&#233;veloppement et de neurosciences cognitives, dans sa conf&#233;rence de juillet 2019&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-35&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Gr&#233;goire BORST, Evaluer les m&#233;tacomp&#233;tences, un enjeu pour la r&#233;ussite des (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-35&#034;&gt;35&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; &#171; Evaluer les m&#233;tacomp&#233;tences, un enjeu pour la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants au XXI&lt;sup class=&#034;typo_exposants&#034;&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; si&#232;cle &#187;, rappelait volontiers quelques donn&#233;es de base concernant la maturation du cerveau&lt;i&gt; &#171; qui se d&#233;veloppe jusqu'&#224; l'&#226;ge de 25-27 ans. Les derni&#232;res parties du cerveau &#224; se d&#233;velopper sont situ&#233;es dans le cortex pr&#233;frontal. Celles-ci nous permettent de contr&#244;ler nos &#233;motions, mais aussi de raisonner, de planifier et de contr&#244;ler nos comportements &#187;. &lt;/i&gt;L'&#233;tudiant qui arrive &#224; l'universit&#233;, est donc en pleine maturation, dans cette p&#233;riode de transition entre deux &#226;ges. La capacit&#233; d'autocontrainte au travail personnel est en cours d'acquisition. Le m&#233;decin Marie-Pia d'Ortho compl&#232;te : le conflit avec les rythmes biologiques est exacerb&#233; quand le sommeil manque ; dans cette tranche d'&#226;ge, &#171; &lt;i&gt;p&#233;riode&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt; cruciale pour les capacit&#233;s de synth&#232;se, d'analyse et de m&#233;moire, alors que la plasticit&#233; c&#233;r&#233;brale joue &#224; plein r&#233;gime, le sommeil, dans toutes ses dimensions, est primordial&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt; &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-36&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Marie-Pia d'ORTHO, cit&#233;e dans article &#8216;Quand le sommeil se d&#233;traque pendant (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-36&#034;&gt;36&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Or, pr&#232;s de 4 jeunes sur 10 (38 %) ferment l'&#339;il moins de sept heures par nuit en semaine, selon &lt;a href=&#034;https://institut-sommeil-vigilance.org/actualites/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;l'enqu&#234;te de l'Institut national du sommeil et de la vigilance (INSV) et de la MGEN&lt;/a&gt; de mars 2018.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_4&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Quelle dynamique pour ces temporalit&#233;s ?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Reconna&#238;tre la pr&#233;sence de ces temporalit&#233;s multiples, collectives et individuelles,&lt;strong&gt; leurs rapports de force&lt;/strong&gt;, permet de rendre explicites les syst&#232;mes de valeurs qui l&#233;gitiment tel rapport au temps. Ainsi l'&#233;tudiant en &#233;chec &#233;prouve de grandes difficult&#233;s &#224; &#171; &lt;i&gt;prendre rendez-vous, &#224; diff&#233;rer des actions &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-37&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Francis LESOURD parle des personnes &#171; temporellement exil&#233;es &#187; ; Pratiques (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-37&#034;&gt;37&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, &#224; occuper les temps morts. En 2007, Le Monde de l'&#233;ducation titrait un dossier : &lt;i&gt;&#171; Travailler moins pour apprendre mieux : peut-on faire r&#233;ussir les &#233;l&#232;ves avec moins de temps ? &#187;&lt;/i&gt; (Le Monde de l'&#233;ducation, 2007). Le temps serait-il donc une variable-cl&#233; de l'am&#233;lioration du syst&#232;me d'enseignement ? Christophe Boujon, enseignant-chercheur en psychologie &#224; l'universit&#233; d'Angers, interroge : les rythmes scolaires doivent-ils &#234;tre seulement con&#231;us avec l'id&#233;e qu'il existe un rythme d'apprentissage id&#233;al et universel ou en tenant compte des diff&#233;rences d'acquisition ? Autrement dit, le but d'un apprentissage en est-il la maitrise (que l'enfant maitrise mieux ses comp&#233;tences) ou la performance ? (qu'il soit plus performant que les autres) ?&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;&#171; Il faut &#233;videmment privil&#233;gier dans les apprentissages le but de maitrise pour &#233;viter la diminution ou l'absence de motivation et donc d'attention. Tous les enfants &#8211; m&#234;me d'un &#226;ge identique &#8211; &#233;voluent diff&#233;remment, physiologiquement et intellectuellement. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-38&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Christophe BOUJON, cit&#233; dans Profession Education, n&#176;242, d&#233;cembre (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-38&#034;&gt;38&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mais comment savoir si les &#233;tudiants sont r&#233;ellement en activit&#233; ? Selon le rythme du cours, l'attention de l'&#233;tudiant fluctue. Le mot &#8216;attention' a une r&#233;sonance tr&#232;s forte dans la th&#233;matique que nous sommes en train d'explorer : &#234;tre attentif, c'est accorder du temps, c'est synchroniser temps int&#233;rieur et temps prescrit. Ce n'est donc pas la quantit&#233; du temps pass&#233;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-39&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Aniko HUSTI : &#171; la conviction g&#233;n&#233;rale que l'heure de cours est le temps (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-39&#034;&gt;39&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; qui influence r&#233;ellement la performance des &#233;tudiants mais bien la mani&#232;re d'utiliser ce temps. Or il est m&#233;thodologiquement difficile de mesurer l'usage du &lt;strong&gt;temps de l'apprentissage&lt;/strong&gt;, quand l'&#233;tudiant &lt;i&gt;&#171; repasse &#187; &lt;/i&gt;son cours selon l'expression du philosophe Gaston Bachelard&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-40&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Gaston BACHELARD, Le rationalisme appliqu&#233;, Paris, P.U.F., 1949 : &#171; L'&#234;tre (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-40&#034;&gt;40&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. L'emploi du temps sur l'ENT ne nous renseigne que partiellement sur le temps r&#233;ellement employ&#233;, l'exp&#233;rience intime du temps, &#171; &lt;i&gt;les instants d'attention &#187;&lt;/i&gt; pour citer Bachelard&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-41&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Gaston BACHELARD, L'Intuition de l'instant, &#233;d. Stock, Paris, 1932. (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-41&#034;&gt;41&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. En 1975, Michel Verret, avait tent&#233; dans sa th&#232;se, de mesurer le temps d'attention r&#233;el des &#233;tudiants durant un cours, en essayant d'interpr&#233;ter leurs attitudes, comme celle qui consiste &#224; regarder par la fen&#234;tre&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-42&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Michel VERRET, Le temps des &#233;tudes, Th&#232;se d'&#233;tat, Universit&#233; de Lille, 1975&#034; id=&#034;nh2-42&#034;&gt;42&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Quelques &#233;tudiants n'ont pas de g&#234;ne &#224; dire ce qu'ils font r&#233;ellement pendant les cours : des activit&#233;s sans lien avec le cours lui-m&#234;me, notamment sur smartphone qui leur permettent d'investir ce temps par exemple pour garder le rythme de la vie sociale. &lt;i&gt;&#171; Ce n'est pas en temps de scolarit&#233; qu'il faut investir mais en attention, en intelligence, en inventivit&#233;, en qualit&#233; &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-43&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Philippe PERRENOUD, Dix principes pour rendre le syst&#232;me &#233;ducatif plus (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-43&#034;&gt;43&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; &#233;crit le sociologue Philippe Perrenoud.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alors que Richard Gaillard pose un regard sur les changements de rythmes et de temporalit&#233;s impliqu&#233;s par la vie universitaire et sur les in&#233;galit&#233;s de capacit&#233; d'adaptation des &#233;tudiants face &#224; ces changements, &#224; l'IREDU, laboratoire d'&#233;conomie et de sociologie de l'&#233;ducation de l'universit&#233; de Bourgogne, des travaux d&#233;veloppent la notion de pratique d'&#233;tude en explorant l'effet &#171; enseignant &#187;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-44&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Sophie MORLAIX, Bruno SUCHAUT, Analyse de la r&#233;ussite en premi&#232;re ann&#233;e (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-44&#034;&gt;44&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Le premier souci des enseignants est de trouver de quoi occuper le temps scolaire avec des choses &#224; faire, caricature le psychologue Robert Burns&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-45&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Robert BURNS, How time is used in elementary schools : the activity (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-45&#034;&gt;45&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La mise en temps du cours est pourtant une t&#226;che difficile. Comment se structure le temps dans l'organisation du cours, quand l'enseignant acc&#233;l&#232;re, ralentit, patiente, essaie de faire avancer &#224; la m&#234;me vitesse, partage le temps, en perd ou en gagne, ose prendre le temps, &#8230; ? Comment utiliser efficacement le temps &#224; disposition tout en essayant de respecter le rythme de chacun ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Comment les enseignants, soumis eux-m&#234;mes &#224; des contraintes temporelles fortes, utilisent la portion de temps qui leur est allou&#233;e ? Pour Marie-Pierre Chopin, chercheuse en sciences de l'&#201;ducation, le temps didactique n'avance pas comme celui de l'horloge, il &lt;i&gt;&#171; poss&#232;de sa respiration propre &#187;&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-46&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Marie-Pierre CHOPIN, Le temps de l'enseignement. Coll. Paideia, PUR Rennes, 2011&#034; id=&#034;nh2-46&#034;&gt;46&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Aussi propose-t-elle de &lt;i&gt;&#171; diff&#233;rer la question &#8216;combien faut-il de temps ?', pour s'atteler &#224; la nature m&#234;me de la temporalit&#233; en jeu dans les d&#233;bats sur l'&#233;cole : &#8216;comment se fait le temps de l'enseignement ?'. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-47&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Marie-Pierre CHOPIN, Les usages du &#171; temps &#187; dans les recherches sur (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-47&#034;&gt;47&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Son approche rejoint celle du p&#233;dagogue, Bruno Suchaut, pour qui &#171; &lt;i&gt;le temps doit &#234;tre consid&#233;r&#233; comme la ressource centrale pour les apprentissages des &#233;l&#232;ves, sachant que sa dimension qualitative est plus importante que sa dimension quantitative : &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;c'est bien l'usage que l'&#233;l&#232;ve peut faire du temps et non seulement son volume qui d&#233;termine l'efficacit&#233; p&#233;dagogique &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt; &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-48&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Bruno SUCHAUT, L'organisation et l'utilisation du temps &#224; l'&#233;cole primaire : (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-48&#034;&gt;48&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Philippe Perrenoud est radical : cessons donc de consid&#233;rer le temps comme la seule ressource disponible pour faire face aux in&#233;galit&#233;s. Raisonnons sur la qualit&#233; et l'intensit&#233; de la prise en charge p&#233;dagogique. Aniko Husti, a propos&#233; le concept de &#171; &lt;strong&gt;temps mobile&lt;/strong&gt; &#187;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-49&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;&#192; travers le concept de &#171; temps mobile &#187;, Aniko Husti propose 'un (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-49&#034;&gt;49&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; en poursuivant l'id&#233;e de faire du temps de travail de l'&#233;l&#232;ve un outil au service des apprentissages. Elle s'insurge, avec le p&#233;dagogue Andr&#233; de Peretti&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-50&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Andr&#233; de PERETTI, Pertinences en &#233;ducation, Tome 1, Collection Pratiques (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-50&#034;&gt;50&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; contre l'&#233;miettement des contenus cr&#233;ant des ph&#233;nom&#232;nes de h&#226;te et d'anxi&#233;t&#233;. Tous deux veulent restaurer les &lt;i&gt;&#171; dur&#233;es longues &#187;&lt;/i&gt; qui rendent possibles &lt;i&gt;&#171; des articulations de concepts et des encha&#238;nements, et assurent aussi des gains de temps en &#233;conomisant les d&#233;lais de mise en place du cours &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-51&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Andr&#233; de PERETTI, Pour une &#233;cole plurielle, Recherche et Formation, 1987&#034; id=&#034;nh2-51&#034;&gt;51&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Paul Fraisse, qui a d&#233;velopp&#233; la notion de &#171; chronopsychologie &#187;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-52&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Paul FRAISSE, Psychologie du temps, Paris, Publications universitaires de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-52&#034;&gt;52&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, a d&#233;crit les effets n&#233;gatifs du morcellement de l'activit&#233; sur la perception du temps. Plus c'est morcel&#233;, plus &#231;a para&#238;t long. Claire Leconte commente : &lt;i&gt;&#171; Le meilleur moyen d'enrichir les t&#226;ches consiste &#224; recr&#233;er des unit&#233;s d'activit&#233;s plus complexes et plus durables afin de diminuer le nombre d'actes &#224; produire pendant le temps de travail. Il est important d'y penser quand on veut am&#233;liorer la qualit&#233; de travail des enfants mais aussi de celles et ceux qui ont en charge leur &#233;ducation. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-53&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Claire LECONTE, Des rythmes de vie aux rythmes scolaires, Presses (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-53&#034;&gt;53&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alors que les NCU et la loi ORE interrogent la dur&#233;e des &#233;tudes, un regard critique sur ce vaste puzzle fig&#233; qu'est l'emploi du temps para&#238;t s'imposer. Morcellement horaire, cloisonnement rigide des disciplines, isolement des enseignants : le d&#233;coupage du travail en heures de cours fait oublier que ce d&#233;coupage du temps oblige un d&#233;coupage du contenu. Or, &#233;nonce Aniko Husti, quand on d&#233;coupe du contenu, on d&#233;coupe du sens. Sa d&#233;marche vise &#224; d&#233;finir un mod&#232;le d'organisation du temps qui donnerait un sens p&#233;dagogique au temps per&#231;u non plus comme une contrainte mais comme un outil p&#233;dagogique. Ses travaux, qui datent des ann&#233;es 1980, rejoignent ceux qui s'int&#233;ressent aux structures temporelles constitutives des disciplines&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-54&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Mathias MILLET, Les &#233;tudiants et le travail universitaire, Lyon P.U.L., 2003&#034; id=&#034;nh2-54&#034;&gt;54&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Et donc singuli&#232;res.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-55&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Alain FERNEX, Laurent LIMA, Temps de travail des &#233;tudiants (Chapitre 5), in (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-55&#034;&gt;55&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mais l'existence de nombreuses contraintes immobili&#232;res, calendaires et administratives ne facilite pas la t&#226;che de l'enseignant qui fait cours &#224; des &#233;tudiants aux rythmes singuliers. L'organisation du temps est d&#233;termin&#233;e par un principe administratif de gestion des enseignants et leurs obligations de service. En 1976, &#224; l'&#233;poque des commissions sur le surmenage, le D&lt;sup class=&#034;typo_exposants&#034;&gt;r&lt;/sup&gt; Guy Vermeil&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-56&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Guy VERMEIL, La fatigue &#224; l'&#233;cole, Les &#233;ditions ESF, Collection Sciences de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-56&#034;&gt;56&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, se pr&#233;occupe de la fatigue des enseignants et leur propose de &lt;strong&gt;travailler moins chaque jour et plus de jours&lt;/strong&gt; dans l'ann&#233;e. Depuis, les pionniers de la &#171; slow education &#187; ont pris le relais : &lt;i&gt;&#171; En &#233;ducation, moins c'est plus &#187;, &#171; L'&#233;ducation n&#233;cessite du temps sans temps &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-57&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Joan DOMENECH FRANCESCH, un des pionniers et principaux auteurs de cette (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-57&#034;&gt;57&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&#8230; La sociologue, Christine Musselin&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-58&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Christine MUSSELIN, Les universitaires, La D&#233;couverte, coll. &#171; Rep&#232;res (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-58&#034;&gt;58&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, dans son livre Les universitaires, &#233;nonce les activit&#233;s tr&#232;s diverses et peu quantifiables des enseignants : n&#233;gociation de stages, contact avec les futurs employeurs d'&#233;tudiants, activit&#233; de conception et de gestion de cours en ligne, pr&#233;paration de conf&#233;rence, n&#233;gociation de contrats de recherche, correction de copies &#8230; Marie-Fran&#231;oise Fave-Bonnet, chercheuse en sciences de l'&#233;ducation, qualifie ce temps comme &lt;i&gt;&#171; &#224; la fois non contraint et surcharg&#233; &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-59&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Marie-Fran&#231;oise FAVE-BONNET, Les universitaires : une identit&#233; (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-59&#034;&gt;59&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. Les rythmes quotidiens enchev&#234;tr&#233;s, saccad&#233;s, dispers&#233;s, parasit&#233;s par les mails sont d&#233;nonc&#233;s comme un mal chronique. A cela, il faut ajouter des difficult&#233;s &#224; consacrer le temps n&#233;cessaire pour se former sur ces outils qui ne cessent de changer et le rythme effr&#233;n&#233; des r&#233;formes tel que soulign&#233; par Jean-Philippe Melchior, enseignant-chercheur en sociologie &#224; l'universit&#233; du Mans : &#171; &lt;i&gt;cette acc&#233;l&#233;ration pr&#233;sent&#233;e comme synonyme d'efficacit&#233; et apparent&#233;e au volontarisme, d&#233;stabilise le rapport &#224; l'avenir et participe au brouillage des rep&#232;res. Elle favorise &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;l'installation d'un climat d'incertitude, facteur d'inqui&#233;tude, de r&#233;signation, voire de sid&#233;ration. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-60&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Jean-Philippe MELCHIOR, Acc&#233;l&#233;ration des r&#233;formes et nouvelles contraintes (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-60&#034;&gt;60&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;Les r&#233;sultats de la quatri&#232;me &#233;dition du barom&#232;tre EducPros, publi&#233; en avril 2017&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-61&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Satisfaction au travail, &#233;quilibre vie professionnelle et vie priv&#233;e, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-61&#034;&gt;61&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; confirment cet &#233;tat d'esprit : enseignants-chercheurs et BIATSS&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-62&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;personnels ing&#233;nieurs, administratifs, techniques, sociaux et de sant&#233; et (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-62&#034;&gt;62&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; sont continuellement tiraill&#233;s entre l'envie de bien faire leur travail et l'impression de manquer de temps et de moyens.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_5&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Quand le temps est apprentissage&#8230;&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le temps universitaire compose donc avec un faisceau de contraintes, auxquelles les diff&#233;rents rythmes viennent r&#233;pondre. Pour les &#233;tudiants comme pour les enseignants, faire l'exp&#233;rience du 'manque de temps'&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-63&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Aniko HUSTI : &#171; L'&#233;cole donne l'&#233;ducation d'un temps statique et r&#233;p&#233;titif, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-63&#034;&gt;63&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; ou de la difficult&#233; &#224; 'prioriser' conduit &#224; la n&#233;cessit&#233; de revisiter de fa&#231;on critique le rapport aux temps. La mani&#232;re d'agir cr&#233;e le rythme qui est, &#224; premi&#232;re vue, affaire d'organisation, de r&#233;gularit&#233;, d'alternance, de cadence. La rythmanalyse qui a pour enjeu de comprendre la polyrythmie, souligne le caract&#232;re plut&#244;t irr&#233;gulier et inattendu du rythme, fait notamment d'intervalles, de silences, de blancs, tel que d&#233;crit par le sociologue Henri Lefebvre&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-64&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Henri LEFEBVRE, &#201;l&#233;ments de rythmanalyse : Introduction &#224; la connaissance (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-64&#034;&gt;64&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Le rythme permet, entre autres, d'int&#233;grer la notion de repos&lt;i&gt;, &lt;/i&gt;exprim&#233; par Bachelard, formul&#233; par l'&#233;conomiste Philippe Askenazy dans l'expression&lt;i&gt; &#171; reposer le travail &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-65&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Philippe ASKENAZY, Les d&#233;sordres du travail, Enqu&#234;te sur le nouveau (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-65&#034;&gt;65&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; et r&#233;sum&#233; par la psychologue&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;Lila Davachi :&lt;i&gt; &#171; le repos est propice &#224; la m&#233;moire &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-66&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Cit&#233; dans Prendre une pause pour mieux m&#233;moriser, R&#233;seau d'information pour (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-66&#034;&gt;66&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pour chacun d'entre nous, garder le rythme, &#234;tre dans le rythme n&#233;cessite une accommodation parfois difficile. Rechercher un usage optimal du temps, distinguer les temporalit&#233;s &#224; l'&#339;uvre dans le m&#233;tier d'enseignant ou d'&#233;tudiant d&#233;passe les aspects organisationnels et implique de fa&#231;on plus large le rapport &#224; soi et &#224; son milieu. Francis Lesourd utilise la notion d'&#171; enveloppe temporelle &#187; pour d&#233;crire la complexit&#233; du rapport au temps&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-67&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Francis LESOURD, L'homme en transition, &#201;ducation et tournants de vie, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-67&#034;&gt;67&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;. L'expression &#171; &lt;strong&gt;&#233;quation temporelle personnelle &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-68&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;William GROSSIN, Pour une science des temps : introduction &#224; l'&#233;cologie (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-68&#034;&gt;68&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; de William Grossin l'un des pionniers de l'&#233;tude sociologique des temps, invite &#224; d&#233;velopper un rapport au temps le plus coh&#233;rent, coordonn&#233; et &#233;quilibr&#233; possible. C'est peut-&#234;tre m&#234;me un enjeu de formation, pour apprendre &#224; &lt;i&gt;&#8216;rythmer les rythmes'&lt;/i&gt;. Le chercheur en Sciences de l'Education, Gaston Pineau l'appelle &lt;strong&gt;chronoformation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-69&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Gaston PINEAU, Temporalit&#233;s en formation. Vers de nouveaux synchroniseurs, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-69&#034;&gt;69&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
L'objectif de ce colloque est d'interroger l'importance de la mise en perspective des mots cl&#233;s propos&#233;s par le minist&#232;re (parcours personnalis&#233;, flexibilit&#233;, modularisation, rythmes adaptables, orientation et r&#233;ussite&#8230;.) pour que la promesse d'autonomie puisse &#234;tre r&#233;fl&#233;chie dans ses dimensions temporelles et p&#233;dagogiques.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Si l'on s'appuie, avec l'arr&#234;t&#233; licence, sur le &lt;i&gt;contrat&lt;/i&gt; p&#233;dagogique pour mesurer la r&#233;ussite &#233;tudiante et, au regard des &#233;tudes pluridisciplinaires que l'on vient de passer en revue, ce contrat devra d&#233;passer une approche uniquement gestionnaire du temps, pour adopter &lt;strong&gt;une approche p&#233;dagogique du temps. &lt;/strong&gt;Organiser des cursus &#224; plusieurs vitesses, d&#233;couper le temps en p&#233;riodes et en moduler les niveaux d'exigence dans des parcours ne suffira, semble-t-il, pas. Si les choix d'orientation sont &#171; &lt;i&gt;des formes plus ou moins &#233;volu&#233;es de ma&#238;trise du temps &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-70&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;James MASY, La temporalit&#233;, une disposition sociale et culturelle de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh2-70&#034;&gt;70&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, ce contrat, ne pourra alors pas faire l'impasse sur ces temporalit&#233;s qui &#233;manent des enseignants et des &#233;tudiants eux-m&#234;mes, sur leurs perceptions, leur ressenti de la dur&#233;e, selon leurs mani&#232;res d'&#233;tudier et leur investissement studieux. Privil&#233;gier telle forme de rythme dans le contexte de ce contrat permettrait de l&#233;gitimer ce rythme comme juste et coh&#233;rent pour le projet poursuivi. Pour que ce contrat enfin, soit une &#233;tape cl&#233;, un instrument pour se figurer l'horizon temporel, l'&#233;tudiant devra &#234;tre en mesure de reconna&#238;tre les rapports de force entre ces temporalit&#233;s, de choisir des rythmes, de prendre du recul, de faire le point r&#233;guli&#232;rement, de d&#233;velopper une conscience temporelle. L'universit&#233; reconna&#238;tra en retour les diff&#233;rences pour permettre d'autres r&#233;ussites.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alors que chacun est en prise avec le temps, alors que les principaux rep&#232;res temporels se diluent, les NCU, Projet d'Investissement d'Avenir, font le pari de la flexibilit&#233; temporelle. R&#233;viser le temps, c'est rechercher d'une part une am&#233;lioration des conditions de vie et de travail des &#233;tudiants, des enseignants et de tous les services techniques et administratifs qui les accompagnent et, d'autre part, viser un desserrement des contraintes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
C'est pourquoi il est indispensable de porter attention aux temps, temps studieux et autres temps de vie, et &#224; leurs rythmes entrelac&#233;s, dans une vision plus large du temps de formation, tout au long de la vie.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Plut&#244;t qu'une ressource rare, qui se consommerait, le temps est une mati&#232;re premi&#232;re. Pr&#233;cieuse. Et l'orchestration coh&#233;rente, raisonnable de toutes ces temporalit&#233;s est une qu&#234;te de sens.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Cette introduction est le fruit d'un travail documentaire illustrant la diversit&#233; de la probl&#233;matique et des domaines reli&#233;s. Il ne pr&#233;tend pas &#224; l'exhaustivit&#233; : n'ont pas &#233;t&#233; observ&#233;s les mutations des temporalit&#233;s sociales impliqu&#233;es par le num&#233;rique, l'emploi &#233;tudiant ou encore l'impact de la professionnalisation sur la r&#233;partition du temps d'&#233;tudes. La table ronde organis&#233;e dans ce colloque permettra non seulement d'explorer ces dimensions mais aussi d'&#233;voquer des leviers pour ouvrir d'autres perspectives pour les formations. Profitons de cette r&#233;flexion, de ce temps du possible, qui nous est propos&#233;e pour mieux approcher cette question d'une grande complexit&#233;, dont les implications sont multiples et qui porte de fortes attentes sur le r&#244;le et les exigences du syst&#232;me universitaire d'aujourd'hui.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pour conclure, voici un clin d'&#339;il &#224; Fran&#231;ois Rabelais, &#224; qui THELEME a d&#233;j&#224; emprunt&#233; l'abbaye et un peu de son id&#233;al humaniste : &#171; Jamais, s'&#233;cria Fr&#232;re Jean, je ne m'assujettis &#224; heures. Les heures sont faites pour l'homme et non l'homme pour les heures. &#187;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb2-71&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Fran&#231;ois RABELAIS, Gargantua, 1534&#034; id=&#034;nh2-71&#034;&gt;71&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-1&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-1&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;L'action &#171; Nouveaux cursus &#224; l'universit&#233; &#187; a pour objectif de soutenir les universit&#233;s, les &#233;coles et les regroupements d'&#233;tablissements qui souhaitent diversifier leur offre de formation afin de r&#233;pondre aux enjeux auxquels est confront&#233; le syst&#232;me fran&#231;ais d'enseignement sup&#233;rieur. &lt;a href=&#034;https://anr.fr/fr/detail/call/nouveaux-cursus-a-luniversite-ncu-vague-1-2017/&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;https://anr.fr/fr/detail/call/nouveaux-cursus-a-luniversite-ncu-vague-1-2017/&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-2&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-2&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Daniel FIL&#194;TRE, &lt;i&gt;R&#233;former le premier cycle de l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et am&#233;liorer la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants,&lt;/i&gt; Rapport g&#233;n&#233;ral, 19 octobre 2017&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-3&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-3&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Terra Nova, &lt;i&gt;Etudes sup&#233;rieures, rythmes choisis, rythmes subis&lt;/i&gt;, Rapport par Martin ANDLER, Laurent DAUDET, Gilles HALBOUT, Jean-Pierre KOROLITSKI, Yves LICHTENBERGER, Catherine PARADEISE, 14 octobre 2017.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-4&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-4&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;{{}}&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;Le 13&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;octobre 2017, a &#233;t&#233; communiqu&#233;e la liste des 17 laur&#233;ats de la premi&#232;re vague de l'appel &#224; projets Nouveaux cursus &#224; l'universit&#233; du P.I.A. 3, dot&#233; d'une enveloppe de 250 millions d'euros sur 10 ans, et dont la gestion a &#233;t&#233; confi&#233;e &#224; l'Agence Nationale de la Recherche. 66 projets avaient &#233;t&#233; d&#233;pos&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-5&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-5&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Pr&#233;sentation du nouvel arr&#234;t&#233; Licence au CNESER, 9 juillet 2018.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-6&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-6&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Courrier de Fr&#233;d&#233;rique VIDAL &#224; Michel COSNARD, Pr&#233;sident de l'HCERES, 25 f&#233;vrier 2019.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-7&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-7&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Michel COSNARD, D&#233;p&#234;che AEF, 19 juillet 2019.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-8&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-8&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-8&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Philippe LALLE, D&#233;p&#234;che AEF, 18 septembre 2019.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-9&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-9&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-9&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Par exemple : charte des rythmes adopt&#233;e &#224; l'universit&#233; Fran&#231;ois-Rabelais en juillet 2013.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-10&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-10&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-10&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Rencontre avec Saeed PAIVANDI, &lt;i&gt;Comprendre l'&#233;tudiant et sa temporalit&#233; pour am&#233;liorer la p&#233;dagogie &#224; l'universit&#233;&lt;/i&gt;, SU2IP &#8211; Universit&#233; de Lorraine&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;rct=j&amp;q=&amp;esrc=s&amp;source=web&amp;cd=2&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAjdmD877mAhW9QkEAHYklC-0QFjABegQIARAC&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fsup.univ-lorraine.fr%2Ffiles%2F2016%2F11%2FInterview-de-Saeed-PAIVANDI.pdf&amp;usg=AOvVaw32h6mFcCtMP6Z3KjG-atW5&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;,&lt;/a&gt; 27 octobre 2016.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-11&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-11&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-11&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Aniko HUSTI, La dynamique du temps scolaire, Hachette Education 1999 : &#171; Une des dimensions les plus p&#233;rim&#233;es de l'enseignement secondaire est certainement son utilisation du temps, puisque l'institution &#233;ducative a adopt&#233; et impos&#233; tout au long de notre si&#232;cle le m&#234;me concept de temps, tout en fixant continuellement des objectifs nouveaux. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-12&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-12&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-12&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Fran&#231;ois TESTU, &lt;i&gt;Rythmes de vie et rythmes scolaires&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Aspects chronobiologiques et chronopsychologiques&lt;/i&gt;, Paris, Masson, 2008&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-13&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-13&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-13&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Claire Leconte, &lt;i&gt;Des rythmes de vie aux rythmes scolaires : Une histoire sans fin&lt;/i&gt;, Presses universitaires du Septentrion, Collection Savoirs mieux, Avril 2014&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-14&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-14&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-14&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Francis LESOURD, &lt;i&gt;Construire et habiter le temps de l'enseignement en ligne&lt;/i&gt;, dans Kim S. et Verrier C. (dir.), &lt;i&gt;Le plaisir d'apprendre en ligne &#224; l'universit&#233; : implication et p&#233;dagogie&lt;/i&gt;, Bruxelles, De Boeck universit&#233;, 2009&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-15&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-15&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-15&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Andr&#233; GIORDAN, Apprendre ! Belin, 1998. &#171; A terme, il s'agit [&#8230;] de sortir du sempiternel cadre organisateur de l'&#233;cole : &#171; une discipline &#8211; un cours &#8211; une heure &#8211; un enseignant &#187;. [&#8230;] Ce saupoudrage horaire donne peu de temps pour s'investir dans une t&#226;che ou un projet. La pratique de l'heure de cours conduit l'&#233;l&#232;ve &#224; &#171; zapper &#187;. Il ne peut &#234;tre cr&#233;atif. Il doit commencer et recommencer sans cesse des apprentissages et les interrompre aussit&#244;t, six &#224; sept fois dans la m&#234;me journ&#233;e. Les temps de r&#233;flexion individuelle, le travail en groupe ou le contact personnalis&#233; avec l'enseignant sont r&#233;duits &#224; la portion congrue. Ce saucissonnage conduit l'&#233;l&#232;ve &#224; se disperser. Sa motivation et son attention se diluent. L'enseignant doit reprendre tout &#224; z&#233;ro ou presque chaque fois. Comment peut-il remotiver sans cesse ? &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-16&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-16&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-16&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Aniko HUSTI, La dynamique du temps scolaire, Hachette Education 1999. Aniko Husti d&#233;nonce &lt;i&gt;&#171; un immense retard de la pens&#233;e sur le sens du temps dans l'enseignement. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-17&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-17&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-17&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Dominique BORNE, Fran&#231;ois PERRET, IGEN, L'emploi du temps des &#233;l&#232;ves au lyc&#233;e, Rapport &#224; Monsieur le Ministre de l'&#201;ducation nationale, 2001&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-18&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-18&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-18&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Bernard LAHIRE, &lt;i&gt;Les mani&#232;res d'&#233;tudier&lt;/i&gt;, Cahier de l'Observatoire de la vie &#233;tudiante, La Documentation fran&#231;aise, 1997&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-19&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-19&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-19&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Alain COULON, &lt;i&gt;Le m&#233;tier d'&#233;tudiant&lt;/i&gt;, Paris : Economica-Anthropos, 2005&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-20&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-20&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-20&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Rencontre avec Saeed PAIVANDI, &lt;i&gt;Comprendre l'&#233;tudiant et sa temporalit&#233; pour am&#233;liorer la p&#233;dagogie &#224; l'universit&#233;&lt;/i&gt;, SU2IP &#8211; Universit&#233; de Lorraine&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;rct=j&amp;q=&amp;esrc=s&amp;source=web&amp;cd=2&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAjdmD877mAhW9QkEAHYklC-0QFjABegQIARAC&amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fsup.univ-lorraine.fr%2Ffiles%2F2016%2F11%2FInterview-de-Saeed-PAIVANDI.pdf&amp;usg=AOvVaw32h6mFcCtMP6Z3KjG-atW5&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;,&lt;/a&gt; 27 octobre 2016.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-21&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-21&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-21&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Muriel DARMON, &lt;i&gt;Classes pr&#233;paratoires, la fabrique d'une jeunesse dominante&lt;/i&gt;, La D&#233;couverte, 2015&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-22&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-22&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-22&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;St&#233;phane BEAUD, &#171; Le temps &#233;lastique. &#201;tudiants de &#171; cit&#233; &#187; et examens universitaires &#187;, Terrain. Carnets du patrimoine ethnologique, 29, septembre 1997.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-23&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-23&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-23&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;23&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/q/*/authFullName_s/Jean-Michel+G%C3%A9nevaux&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Jean-Michel GENEVAUX&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/q/*/authFullName_s/Samuel+Gougeon&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Samuel GOUGEON&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/q/*/authFullName_s/Adrien+Pelat&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Adrien PELAT&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/q/*/authFullName_s/Jean-Pierre+Dalmont&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Jean-Pierre DALMONT&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/q/*/authIdHal_s/nicolas-joly&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Nicolas JOLY&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Leur remonter les bretelles avant l'examen ou leur faire passer des ceintures ?... De quoi donner des boutons !&lt;/i&gt;, Congr&#232;s Francais de M&#233;canique 201, Bordeaux, France, 2013, &lt;a href=&#034;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00808331&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;&#10216;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-24&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-24&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-24&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;24&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Louis LEVY-GARBOUA, &lt;i&gt;Les demandes de l'&#233;tudiant ou les contradictions de l'universit&#233; de masse. R&#233;ponse aux commentaires, &lt;/i&gt;Revue fran&#231;aise de sociologie,1978&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-25&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-25&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-25&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;25&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Alain COULON, &lt;i&gt;Le m&#233;tier d'&#233;tudiant&lt;/i&gt;, Paris : Economica-Anthropos, 2005&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-26&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-26&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-26&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;26&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Jean PERROT, &lt;i&gt;Les influences des caract&#233;ristiques de l'offre d'&#233;ducation sur l'organisation du temps des &#233;l&#232;ves&lt;/i&gt;, Revue fran&#231;aise de p&#233;dagogie, N&#176;69, 1984. &lt;i&gt;&#171; La production de valeur scolaire s'effectue en utilisant des ressources temporelles. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-27&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-27&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-27&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;27&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Saeed PAIVANDI : &lt;i&gt;&#171; le moment de l'universit&#233; implique une vraie qu&#234;te de sens dans la perspective d'un projet &#224; long terme. &#187;&lt;/i&gt; in &lt;i&gt;Performance universitaire, apprentissage et temporalit&#233; des &#233;tudiants&lt;/i&gt;, Revue fran&#231;aise de p&#233;dagogie, n&#176;202, 2018&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-28&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-28&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-28&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;28&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Mariangela ROSELLI, Nathalie CHAUVAC, Sa&#239;d JMEL, Le temps libre des &#233;tudiants (chapitre 6), in &lt;i&gt;Les vies &#233;tudiantes, Tendances et in&#233;galit&#233;s, &lt;/i&gt;sous la dir&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;de&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;Jean-Fran&#231;ois GIRET, C&#233;cile VAN DE VELDE, Elise VERLEY, La documentation fran&#231;aise, 2016&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-29&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-29&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-29&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;29&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Sur les d&#233;terminants de ce processus d'allocation temporelle, Alain FERNEX, Laurent LIMA, Erica De VRIES &lt;i&gt;Exploring time allocation for academic activities by university students in France. &lt;/i&gt;Higher Education, 69, 2015, cit&#233; dans &lt;i&gt;Les vies &#233;tudiantes, Tendances et in&#233;galit&#233;s, &lt;/i&gt;sous la dir&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;de Jean-Fran&#231;ois GIRET, C&#233;cile VAN DE VELDE, Elise VERLEY, La documentation fran&#231;aise, 2016&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-30&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-30&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-30&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;30&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Jean-Pierre BOUTINET, &lt;i&gt;Penser l'accompagnement adulte&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.cairn.info/editeur.php?ID_EDITEUR=PUF&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Presses Universitaires de France&lt;/a&gt;, 2007.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-31&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-31&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-31&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;31&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;S&#233;raphin ALAVA, Marc ROMAINVILLE, &lt;i&gt;Les pratiques d'&#233;tude, entre socialisation et cognition&lt;/i&gt;, Revue fran&#231;aise de p&#233;dagogie, n&#176;136, 2001 ; Bernard LAHIRE, &lt;i&gt;Les mani&#232;res d'&#233;tudier&lt;/i&gt;, Paris : La Documentation fran&#231;aise, 1997 ; Jean-Pierre TERRAIL, &lt;i&gt;Familles ouvri&#232;res, &#233;cole, destin social (1880-1980)&lt;/i&gt;, Revue fran&#231;aise de sociologie, vol.25, n&#176;3, 1984 : les disparit&#233;s d'acc&#232;s aux fili&#232;res sugg&#232;rent certaines disparit&#233;s de &lt;i&gt;&#171; ma&#238;trise gestionnaire du temps &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-32&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-32&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-32&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;32&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Richard GAILLARD, Franck REXAND-GALAIS (dir.), Christophe DANIEL, Christian PIHET J&#233;r&#244;me PRUGNEAU, Muriel TRAVERS, &lt;i&gt;La condition &#233;tudiante &#224; l'&#233;preuve du territoire&lt;/i&gt;, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-33&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-33&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-33&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;33&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Richard GAILLARD, &lt;i&gt;Enjeux des changements de temporalit&#233; dans la mise en &#339;uvre des politiques sociales,&lt;/i&gt; RES, vie sociale, 2013&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-34&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-34&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-34&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;34&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Philippe CORDAZZO, Christine GUEGNARD, S&#233;verine LANDRIER, &lt;i&gt;Etudes, gal&#232;res et r&#233;ussites, &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;Conditions de vie et parcours &#224; l'universit&#233;&lt;/i&gt;, La documentation fran&#231;aise, 2017. Fruit de deux ann&#233;es de travaux en groupe, cet ouvrage se d&#233;cline en six chapitres pr&#233;sentant les &#233;tudes, les r&#233;ussites et les gal&#232;res des &#233;tudiants selon leurs propres visions ou perceptions. Le chapitre 4 r&#233;dig&#233; par B&#233;n&#233;dicte FROMENT est consacr&#233; aux rythmes &#233;tudiants en licence.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-35&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-35&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-35&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;35&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Gr&#233;goire BORST, &lt;i&gt;Evaluer les m&#233;tacomp&#233;tences, un enjeu pour la r&#233;ussite des &#233;tudiants aux XXI&lt;sup class=&#034;typo_exposants&#034;&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; si&#232;cle,&lt;/i&gt; diffusion en direct du s&#233;minaire &#8216;L'&#233;valuation de la r&#233;ussite', organis&#233; au Minist&#232;re de l'Enseignement sup&#233;rieur, de la Recherche et de l'Innovation, juillet 2019, &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFUCdW9aYD4&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFUCdW9aYD4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-36&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-36&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-36&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;36&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Marie-Pia d'ORTHO, cit&#233;e dans article &lt;i&gt;&#8216;Quand le sommeil se d&#233;traque pendant les &#233;tudes'&lt;/i&gt;, Le Monde, article de &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.lemonde.fr/signataires/pascale-santi/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Pascale Santi&lt;/a&gt;, publi&#233; le 18 janvier 2019&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-37&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-37&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-37&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;37&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Francis LESOURD parle des personnes &#171; temporellement exil&#233;es &#187; ; Pratiques de formation / Analyses n&#176; 51-52 (2006) : &lt;i&gt;&#171; Les temporalit&#233;s &#233;ducatives &#8211; Approches plurielles &#187;,&lt;/i&gt; num&#233;ro coordonn&#233; par Francis Lesourd.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-38&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-38&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-38&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;38&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Christophe BOUJON, cit&#233; dans &lt;i&gt;Profession Education&lt;/i&gt;, n&#176;242, d&#233;cembre 2015-janvier 2016&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-39&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-39&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-39&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;39&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Aniko HUSTI : &lt;i&gt;&#171; la conviction g&#233;n&#233;rale que l'heure de cours est le temps limite de la fatigue de l'&#233;l&#232;ve refl&#232;te la conception traditionnelle que c'est la longueur d'une dur&#233;e, les aiguilles de l'horloge qui mesurent m&#233;caniquement la dur&#233;e de l'int&#233;r&#234;t. &#187;,&lt;/i&gt; in &lt;i&gt;Les Cahiers P&#233;dagogiques&lt;/i&gt;, n&#176;284-285, 1990&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-40&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-40&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-40&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;40&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Gaston BACHELARD, &lt;i&gt;Le rationalisme appliqu&#233;&lt;/i&gt;, Paris, P.U.F., 1949 : &lt;i&gt;&#171; L'&#234;tre qui veut apprendre &#171; repasse &#187; la composition du savoir. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-41&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-41&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-41&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;41&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Gaston BACHELARD, &lt;i&gt;L'Intuition de l'instant&lt;/i&gt;, &#233;d. Stock, Paris, 1932. G.Bachelard nous invite &#224; penser le temps non plus de mani&#232;re horizontale, comme dur&#233;e, mais de mani&#232;re verticale &#224; partir d'instants successifs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-42&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-42&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-42&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;42&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Michel VERRET&lt;i&gt;, Le temps des &#233;tudes&lt;/i&gt;, Th&#232;se d'&#233;tat, Universit&#233; de Lille, 1975&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-43&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-43&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-43&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;43&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Philippe PERRENOUD, &lt;i&gt;Dix principes pour rendre le syst&#232;me &#233;ducatif plus efficace&lt;/i&gt;, Facult&#233; de psychologie et des sciences de l'&#233;ducation, Universit&#233; de Gen&#232;ve, 2002&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-44&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-44&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-44&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;44&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Sophie MORLAIX, Bruno SUCHAUT, &lt;i&gt;Analyse de la r&#233;ussite en premi&#232;re ann&#233;e universitaire : effets des facteurs sociaux, scolaires et cognitifs&lt;/i&gt;. 12015. Documents de travail de l'IREDU, n2012-2.2012, &lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;tt&gt;&lt;halshs-00671336&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; et Am&#233;lie DUGUET, Sophie MORLAIX, &lt;i&gt;Les pratiques p&#233;dagogiques des enseignants universitaires&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;quelle vari&#233;t&#233; pour quelle efficacit&#233; ? &lt;/i&gt;Questions Vives&lt;i&gt;,&lt;/i&gt;Vol.6 n&#176;18 | 2012, &lt;a href=&#034;http://journals.openedition.org/questionsvives/1178&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;http://journals.openedition.org/questionsvives/1178&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-45&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-45&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-45&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;45&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Robert BURNS, &lt;i&gt;How time is used in elementary schools : the activity structure of classrooms&lt;/i&gt;, in L.Wanderson (Ed.) &lt;i&gt;Time and school learning. Theory, research and practice.&lt;/i&gt; London et Canberra, 1984&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-46&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-46&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-46&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;46&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Marie-Pierre CHOPIN, Le temps de l'enseignement. Coll. Paideia, PUR Rennes, 2011&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-47&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-47&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-47&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;47&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Marie-Pierre CHOPIN, &lt;i&gt;Les usages du &#171; temps &#187; dans les recherches sur l'enseignement&lt;/i&gt;, Revue fran&#231;aise de p&#233;dagogie, 170, janvier-mars 2010&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-48&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-48&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-48&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;48&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Bruno SUCHAUT, &lt;i&gt;L'organisation et l'utilisation du temps &#224; l'&#233;cole primaire : Enjeux et effets sur les &#233;l&#232;ves.&lt;/i&gt; In Conf&#233;rence &#224; l'initiative de la ville de Cran-Gevrier (Haute-Savoie)&lt;i&gt;, &lt;/i&gt;12 mai 2009&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-49&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-49&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-49&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;49&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&#192; travers le concept de &#171; temps mobile &#187;, Aniko Husti propose &lt;i&gt;'un enseignement qui vise &#224; une participation active de l'&#233;l&#232;ve en lui donnant du temps pour r&#233;fl&#233;chir, pour communiquer, pour travailler collectivement'&lt;/i&gt;. Cela &lt;i&gt;'n&#233;cessite des dur&#233;es et des rythmes diversifi&#233;s et un emploi du temps variable pour les adapter au contexte global d'un apprentissage et au rythme de l'&#233;l&#232;ve'&lt;/i&gt;. Aniko HUSTI, &lt;i&gt;Garder/perdre du temps dans l'enseignement&lt;/i&gt;, INRP, 1994&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prAmmukNUig&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prAmmukNUig&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-50&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-50&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-50&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;50&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Andr&#233; de PERETTI, &lt;i&gt;Pertinences en &#233;ducation&lt;/i&gt;, Tome 1, Collection Pratiques enjeux p&#233;dagogiques, ESF &#201;diteur, 2001&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-51&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-51&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-51&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;51&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Andr&#233; de PERETTI, &lt;i&gt;Pour une &#233;cole plurielle&lt;/i&gt;, Recherche et Formation, 1987&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-52&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-52&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-52&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;52&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Paul FRAISSE, &lt;i&gt;Psychologie du temps&lt;/i&gt;, Paris, Publications universitaires de France, 1967&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-53&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-53&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-53&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;53&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Claire LECONTE, &lt;i&gt;Des rythmes de vie aux rythmes scolaires,&lt;/i&gt; Presses universitaires du Septentrion, 2014&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-54&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-54&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-54&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;54&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Mathias MILLET, &lt;i&gt;Les &#233;tudiants et le travail universitaire, &lt;/i&gt;Lyon P.U.L., 2003&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-55&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-55&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-55&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;55&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Alain FERNEX, Laurent LIMA, &lt;i&gt;Temps de travail des &#233;tudiants &lt;/i&gt;(Chapitre 5), in &lt;i&gt;Les vies &#233;tudiantes&lt;/i&gt;, La documentation fran&#231;aise, 2016. &lt;i&gt;&#171; Une partie non n&#233;gligeable de la variation dans l'allocation des diff&#233;rents temps provient de la discipline choisie et &#233;tudi&#233;e. &#187;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-56&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-56&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-56&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;56&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Guy VERMEIL, &lt;i&gt;La fatigue &#224; l'&#233;cole&lt;/i&gt;, Les &#233;ditions ESF, Collection Sciences de l'Education, 1976&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-57&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-57&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-57&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;57&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Joan DOMENECH FRANCESCH, un des pionniers et principaux auteurs de cette p&#233;dagogie a d&#233;fini 15 principes de la &lt;i&gt;slow education&lt;/i&gt;, Revue &lt;i&gt;Silence&lt;/i&gt;, N&#176; 382, septembre 2010&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-58&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-58&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-58&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;58&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Christine MUSSELIN, &lt;i&gt;Les universitaires&lt;/i&gt;, La D&#233;couverte, coll. &#171; Rep&#232;res Sociologie &#187;, 2008&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-59&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-59&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-59&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;59&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Marie-Fran&#231;oise FAVE-BONNET, &lt;i&gt;Les universitaires : une identit&#233; professionnelle incertaine&lt;/i&gt;, dans &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.cairn.info/revue-hermes-la-revue.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Herm&#232;s, La Revue&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.cairn.info/revue-hermes-la-revue-2003-1.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2003/1 (n&#176; 35)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-60&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-60&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-60&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;60&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Jean-Philippe MELCHIOR, &lt;i&gt;Acc&#233;l&#233;ration des r&#233;formes et nouvelles contraintes temporelles dans l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et la recherche&lt;/i&gt;, Revue &lt;i&gt;Temporalit&#233;s&lt;/i&gt;, N&#176;17, 2013&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-61&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-61&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-61&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;61&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Satisfaction au travail, &#233;quilibre vie professionnelle et vie priv&#233;e, reconnaissance des missions... EducPros a interrog&#233; 1.540 professionnels de l'enseignement sup&#233;rieur et de la recherche.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-62&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-62&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-62&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;62&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;personnels ing&#233;nieurs, administratifs, techniques, sociaux et de sant&#233; et des biblioth&#232;ques&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-63&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-63&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-63&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;63&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Aniko HUSTI : &lt;i&gt;&#171; L'&#233;cole donne l'&#233;ducation d'un temps statique et r&#233;p&#233;titif, l'habitude d'un temps surcharg&#233; et impersonnel, plus encore, la matrice du temps subi (&#8230;) les jeunes apprennent &#224; l'&#233;cole le temps subi et l'int&#233;riorisent profond&#233;ment. &#187;&lt;/i&gt; in Les Cahiers P&#233;dagogiques, n&#176;284-285, 1990&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-64&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-64&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-64&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;64&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Henri LEFEBVRE&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;i&gt;&#201;l&#233;ments de rythmanalyse : Introduction &#224; la connaissance des rythmes&lt;/i&gt;, Paris, Syllepses, 1992&lt;i&gt;. &#171; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;La rythmanalyse, science nouvelle en voie de constitution, &#233;tudie ces processus hautement complexes. (...) Elle se situe &#224; la charni&#232;re du physique, du physiologique, du social, au c&#339;ur du quotidien&lt;/i&gt; &#187;. Cette rythmanalyse (terme emprunt&#233; &#224; Gaston Bachelard) appara&#238;t aussi dans sa &#8216;th&#233;orie des moments'. G.Bachelard a emprunt&#233; le terme de rythmanalyse &#224; Lucio Alberto Pinheiro dos Santos (1889-1950), dont il dit avoir re&#231;u confidence de l'ouvrage aujourd'hui introuvable La rythmanalyse publi&#233; par la &#171; Soci&#233;t&#233; de Psychologie et de Philosophie &#187; &#224; Rio de Janeiro en 1931.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-65&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-65&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-65&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;65&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Philippe ASKENAZY, &lt;i&gt;Les d&#233;sordres du travail, Enqu&#234;te sur le nouveau productivisme&lt;/i&gt;, &#201;ditions du Seuil et La R&#233;publique des Id&#233;es, 2004&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-66&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-66&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-66&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;66&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Cit&#233; dans &lt;i&gt;Prendre une pause pour mieux m&#233;moriser,&lt;/i&gt; R&#233;seau d'information pour la r&#233;ussite &#233;ducative, publi&#233; le 5 f&#233;vrier 2010 par V&#233;ronique d'Amours.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-67&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-67&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-67&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;67&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Francis LESOURD, &lt;i&gt;L'homme en transition, &#201;ducation et tournants de vie,&lt;/i&gt; Paris, Economica- Anthropos,2009. Cette enveloppe assurerait la coh&#233;rence temporelle d'un individu, incluant ses temporalit&#233;s et son rythme propre. Elle renvoie &#224; une capacit&#233; psychique d'organisation des temps.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-68&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-68&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-68&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;68&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;William GROSSIN, &lt;i&gt;Pour une science des temps : introduction &#224; l'&#233;cologie temporelle&lt;/i&gt;, Toulouse : Octar&#232;s Editions, 1996. Six composantes constituent l'&#233;quation temporelle personnelle : la perception de son existence &#8216;polychronique', l'orientation temporelle, l'horizon temporel d&#233;termin&#233; par le pass&#233; et le futur, une disponibilit&#233; temporelle vers les autres, la gestion temporelle et la possibilit&#233; de s'ouvrir vers de nouvelles temporalit&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-69&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-69&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-69&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;69&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Gaston PINEAU, &lt;i&gt;Temporalit&#233;s en formation. Vers de nouveaux synchroniseurs&lt;/i&gt;, Paris, Anthropos, 2000. Gaston Pineau parle de &#171; coupures temporelles &#187;, de &#171; schizo-chronie &#187; : coupure des &#171; macro-temps physiques et m&#233;taphysiques &#187;, des &#171; micro-temps biologiques &#187;, et des &#171; m&#233;so-temps personnels &#187;. La chrono-formation consiste &#224; apprendre une pluralit&#233; de rythmes sociaux, cosmiques, biologiques, &lt;i&gt;&#171; mais implique aussi d'articuler pour soi ces rythmes, de les synchroniser personnellement [&#8230;] Formation permanente, &#233;quilibre m&#233;tastable, toujours compromis et le plus souvent r&#233;tabli. [...] Il faut donner sa mesure ; rythmer les rythmes &#187;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-70&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-70&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-70&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;70&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;James MASY, &lt;i&gt;La temporalit&#233;, une disposition sociale et culturelle de construction de l'avenir, &lt;/i&gt;SociologieS, 2013. URL : &lt;a href=&#034;http://journals.openedition.org/sociologies/4287&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;http://journals.openedition.org/sociologies/4287&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb2-71&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh2-71&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 2-71&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;71&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Fran&#231;ois RABELAIS, &lt;i&gt;Gargantua, &lt;/i&gt;1534&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="en">
		<title>Writing Time: A Rhythmic Analysis of Contemporary Academic Writing
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2461</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2461</guid>
		<dc:date>2019-10-26T18:23:33Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Fadia Dakka &amp; Alex Wade
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;This paper has already been published in Higher Education Research &amp; Development, Volume 38, 2018 - Issue 1: New Perspectives on Reading and Writing Across the Disciplines, p. 185-197. We thank the authors for the permission to republish it here. Abstract: Where and when do academics write and what are the feelings associated with it? Is the pressure to write a fulfilling process of joyful exploration, or is it stressful and wracked with self-doubt? Inspired by Henri Lefebvre's (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;1. Introduction&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;1. Introduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;2. Open Wounds and Wounded Attachments: Neoliberalism and Academia&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;2. Open Wounds and Wounded Attachments: Neoliberalism and Academia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;3. Air &amp;#38; Light &amp;#38; Time &amp;#38; Space: Writing in Contemporary Academia&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;3. Air &amp; Light &amp; Time &amp; Space: Writing in Contemporary Academia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;4. Writing Rhythms, Rhythms of Writing&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_3'&gt;4. Writing Rhythms, Rhythms of Writing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;5. Everyday Battlefields and Non-Places: Becoming Writers&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_4'&gt;5. Everyday Battlefields and Non-Places: Becoming Writers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;6. Conclusions: Rhythm, Critique and Intellectual Craftsmanship&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_5'&gt;6. Conclusions: Rhythm, Critique and Intellectual Craftsmanship&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;References&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_6'&gt;References&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;This paper has already been published in &lt;/i&gt; &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360.2018.1540555&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Higher Education Research &amp; Development&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Volume 38, 2018 - Issue 1: New Perspectives on Reading and Writing Across the Disciplines, p. 185-197. We thank the authors for the permission to republish it here.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;: Where and when do academics write and what are the feelings associated with it? Is the pressure to write a fulfilling process of joyful exploration, or is it stressful and wracked with self-doubt? Inspired by Henri Lefebvre's Rhythmanalysis, this article explores the rhythmic dispositions and orientations of contemporary academic writing, exposing the perils of neoliberal quantification and fragmentation in relation to the practice and experience of writing. The critical examination of Helen Sword's guide to successful academic writing and a&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;critique of the material and abstract spaces destined to contemporary academic writing inform the analysis, revealing problematic contractions and ruptures in the spatio-temporal continuum that organically connects reading, thinking and writing. The article makes therefore a case for the use of Rhythmanalysis as a diagnostic method capable of signalling &#8211; by detecting arrhythmias &#8211; the increasing disjunction between the institutional demands of accelerated production and the slower, irrational rhythms of craftsmanship. By politicising the pathologies of contemporary academic writing, Rhythmanalysis discloses its potential as a progressive political resource: both as a radical call for appropriation and as a counter-discourse, it allows to restore a more harmonious relationship between thinking, reading and writing against dominant forms of productivist fragmentation, while shedding light on the non-places and dead times of our everyday writing habits.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Keywords: &lt;/strong&gt; academic writing, neoliberalism, rhythmanalysis, everyday life&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;1. Introduction &lt;/h2&gt;&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;What proves the wonderful singularity of the writer, is that during the holiday in question, which he takes alongside factory workers and shop assistants, he unlike them does not stop, if not actually working, at least producing. So that he is a false worker, and a false holiday-maker as well. One is writing his memoirs, another is correcting proofs, yet another is preparing his next book. And he who does nothing confesses it as truly paradoxical behaviour, an avant-garde exploit, which only someone of exceptional independence can afford to flaunt. [&#8230;]&#8230;To speak more decorously, the writer is the prey of an inner god who speaks at all times, without bothering, tyrant that he is, with the holidays of his medium. Writers are on holiday, but their Muse is awake, and gives birth non-stop. (Roland Barthes, &#8220;The Writer on Holiday&#8221;, &lt;i&gt;Mythologies&lt;/i&gt;, 1957)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Is the writer this singular, miraculous creature for whom doing nothing is &#8220;an avant-garde exploit&#8221;, prey as she is of an inner god who speaks non-stop, eluding human fatigue and trivial quotidian necessities? Roland Barthes' answer does not linger on sophisticated sarcasm when he caustically asserts that &#8220;the good-natured image of the writer on holiday is [therefore] no more than one of these cunning mystifications which the Establishment practises the better to enslave its writers&#8221;(Barthes, 1957, p.30).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The image of the ever industrious, relentlessly productive, false holiday-maker masterfully sketched by Barthes in the late 1950s strikes a deep chord of recognition with the stereotype of the contemporary overworked academic, especially in the UK, US and Australia. Missing from that picture are the affective and psychosocial dimensions that accompany the intellectual production of academic writing in the twenty-first century. This is a crucial and timely question to ask, considering that writing for research is one of the quintessential activities that come to constitute and determine one's academic identity, sense of intellectual worth and, in the current climate, job security.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Within increasingly marketised higher education sectors, the volume and quality of publications produced by university departments are, in fact, determinant to secure the steadily diminishing share of public funding destined for research. Through institutional exercises such as the Research Excellence Framework,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;For a detailed description of how the assessment of research works in (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh3-1&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; universities compete with one another in an effort to prove that their scientific production is world leading, innovative and ground-breaking enough to secure a comparative advantage in the national and global arenas of the Knowledge-Based-Economy (Jessop &amp; Sum 2013). When competitiveness and evaluative mechanisms culturally define and structure organisational processes, ethos and individual behaviours, the once-considered creative art of writing,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Similarly to writing for research, teaching is increasingly subjected to (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh3-2&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; is subordinated and subjected to the neoliberal imperatives of efficiency (output productivity), effectiveness (rate of successful publications), economy (increased output productivity vis-&#224;-vis reduced time). Under pressure to continually publish quality publications while simultaneously handling competing activities &#8211; teaching, administrative duties, private lives &#8211; academic writing in contemporary universities might as well lose the romantic trait evoked in Barthes' image of the never-dormant Muse, to descend into a much darker place. Here, lack of time and space for writing invariably becomes synonymous with anxiety, toxic shame and guilt (Gill, 2009; Burrows 2012; 2014). In other words, we should not be asking how successful academics write (Sword, 2017), but rather, how they &lt;i&gt;feel&lt;/i&gt; when they do and &#8211; above all &#8211; when they don't.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
To this end, we begin by unveiling the &#8220;cunning mystifications&#8221; of the publish-or-perish&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;agenda, weaving academic writing into the fabric of the neoliberal thought collective and exposing the link between quantification/fragmentation of the self, academia and mental health issues. We then examine the claims made by Helen Sword in her guide to successful academic writing (2017) against the eurythmic and arrhythmic dispositions that ease or inhibit the practice of writing in our everyday lives.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Lefebvre's Rhythmanalysis (2002) is introduced as a philosophical method and as a pedagogical stance that help problematize, disentangling it, the rhythmicity of writing practices in the contemporary academe. Here, accounts of the often fractured spatio-temporal chain between deep reading, thinking and writing both reflect and react to &#8220;everyday neoliberalism&#8221; (Mirowski, 2013), reclaiming the &#8220;Air &amp; Light &amp; Time &amp; Space&#8221; (Sword, 2017) that reinvigorate the practice of writing as a &#8220;field of play&#8221; (Richardson, 1997) rather than as a site of existential struggle. The article concludes with a case for Rhythmanalysis (Lefebvre, 2013), invoked as a diagnostic method and as a holistic approach to the difficulties associated with writing that, with no exception, all academics encounter. The latter, it is argued, can offer a much more promising way to access and restore the organic connection between thinking, reading and writing. Similarly, it purports to contribute to the rescuing of academic writing from the claws of dominant forms of productivist fragmentation, to redefine, philosophically and politically, the relationship between pedagogy, writing and intellectual craftsmanship.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;2. Open Wounds and Wounded Attachments: Neoliberalism and Academia&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In a famous piece titled &#8220;Breaking the silence: The hidden injuries of the neoliberal university&#8221;, Rosalind Gill (2009) forcefully exposed the affective embodied experiences of &#8220;exhaustion, stress, overload, insomnia, anxiety, shame, aggression, hurt, guilt and feelings of out-of-placeness, fraudulence and fear of exposure within the contemporary academy&#8221; (Gill, 2009, p.4). Tellingly, the opening passage quotes verbatim&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;a private conversation between the author and a colleague-friend revolving around not having time to write, think or read, juggling multiple tasks, being overwhelmed by emails, sacrificing family time, dealing with brutal article rejections and working ridiculously long hours. The na&#239;ve would perhaps expect this to be the grim portrait of academic life for precarious early career researchers in anonymous post-92 universities. On the contrary, the protagonists are two tenured mature female academics, both working for pre-1992, research intensive, British institutions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Gill presented an unadulterated behind the scene cross-section of everyday life in English universities, based on those hidden, secret or silenced experiences that can nevertheless be exhumed from emails of colleagues, informal corridor chats, university memos, exchanges with journal editors and other significant oral or written conversations. Collected over the period of a year, they formed a rich data-set and point of departure for debates and analyses that started to explicitly connect these widespread (negative) experiences with macro-organisational/institutional routines and neoliberal practices at play in the Western university. It is therefore essential to embed these individual experiences within broader streams of literature that consider theories of state restructuring at the turn of the 21&lt;sup class=&#034;typo_exposants&#034;&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century (Jessop, 2015; Cerny, 1997; Bauman, 2000; Beck, 2000) with an emphasis on the transformation of work &#8211; e.g. post-Fordism; liquid modernity; network society; knowledge/learning society. Here, recurring themes feature flexibilization of work patterns; individualization; risk and insecurity; competition; rapid technologic change and the ensuing need for constant reskilling and updating of knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
A second, crucial body of literature connects state restructuring with the cultural, political, and economic transformations of (higher) education (Dale, 2001; Dale and Robertson, 2002; Robertson, 2011, 2012; Bonal, 2003), while a subset of this strand pays particular attention to the institutional, organizational and cultural consequences of marketization and neo-technocratic managerialism (Brown and Carasso, 2013; Callinicos 2006; Filippakou, Salter and Tapper, 2012; Foskett, 2011). The latter are often framed as the importing of corporate and managerial governance styles from the private sector; the privatization and commercialization of universities; the recasting and rephrasing of education in instrumental, transactional and utilitarian terms; the transformation of students into consumers and customers; the casualization of the academic workforce so that is no longer a profession, and the degradation of pay and working conditions; the erosion of academic freedom and autonomy; the proliferation of audit and evaluative measures and the pervasiveness of calculative practices.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Finally, psychosocial analyses of neoliberalism inspired by Foucault place emphasis on processes of &#8220;compulsory individuality&#8221; (Cronin, 2000), whereby &#8220;individuals are now increasingly required to tell the story of their lives as if they were the outcome of deliberative planning and choice&#8221; (Gill, 2009, p. 6) and on disciplinary technologies of the self that efficaciously create and sustain a relentless self-monitoring, responsibilised neoliberal (academic) subject. Set against this backdrop, Gill's lucid expos&#233; of precariousness, endemic burnout, intensification (acceleration) and &#8220;extensification&#8221; (Gill, 2009, p. 9) of academic work across time and space, sketches a painfully accurate portrait of the internalized psychic dispositions of the neoliberal academic subject. Here, anxiety, guilt and shame, fuelled by sector-wide, fetishized competition, have arguably come to signify the &#8220;structures of feeling&#8221; (Williams, 1977) of the contemporary Academe. Their generative and reproductive &lt;i&gt;dispositifs&lt;/i&gt; are located precisely in those individualistic discourses that privatize rather than collectively share and denounce those negative feelings and experiences. When it comes to academic writing, the latter are elicited in the case of slow-paced and/or low productivity and, acutely, in the case of scathing reviews and rejections. In other words, the joys and pleasures of writing seem to be confined to a special breed of academics capable of unyielding self-discipline, resilience, adaptation, rapid response and, above all, of high-volume and high-quality productivity. Within this psychic environment, the passionate attachment to the creative process that is integral to academic writing risks faltering under the cruel necessities of &#8220;quantified control&#8221; (Burrows, 2012). However, paradoxically, the struggling academic seems to be caught in a relation of &#8220;cruel optimism&#8221; (Berlant, 2011), whereby their attachment to prohibitive conditions of possibility &#8211; hyper productivity across the board &#8211; reproduces a vicious cycle of hopeful anticipation without delivery. Yet the failure to deliver intensifies the &#8220;wounded attachment&#8221;(Brown, 1993) to the object of desire, adding to the hidden injuries of neoliberalism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
As a result, for increasing numbers of academics and students academia has become a site of mental health issues. In recent years, many have spoken out from a range of platforms including blogs, online newspapers and social media platforms, breaking a silence induced by shame and isolation as they confessed to anxiety, depression, chronic insomnia, burnout and neurosis.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;See, for instance: https://www.theguardian.com/education/series/mental-health-a-&#034; id=&#034;nh3-3&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; This has helped ignite fruitful theoretical encounters between social theories of acceleration, philosophies of time and rhythm and the attendant psychosocial dimensions of academic labour (Vostal, 2016; Wozniak, 2017; Cannizzo, 2018; Rosa, 2017; Bennett and Burke, 2017). Particularly useful in providing a critical context for the following analysis is Fabian Cannizzo's tactical evaluation of everyday life neoliberalism (Cannizzo, 2018). The author emphasizes the metamorphosis of economic techniques into &#8220;quasi-sovereign&#8221;, &#8220;ritualized and rhetorically powerful&#8221; forms of authority (ibid. p. 25) to reveal how the neoliberal political agenda operates at the level of norms and discourses, producing and validating certain interpretations and enactments of the everyday events that Philip Mirowski (2013) terms &#8220;everyday neoliberalism&#8221;. Through an exploration of the practices, attitudes and horizons of action that inform &#8211; often subconsciously &#8211; our everyday lives, it becomes possible to better comprehend the critical theoretical juncture between state governance and individual self-governing habitus. Crucially, this form of compulsory individuality cannot be achieved without fragmenting one's selfhood:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The fragmentation of the neoliberal self begins when the agent is brought face to face with the realization that she is not just an employee or student, but also simultaneously a product to be sold, a walking advertisement, a manager of her r&#233;sum&#233;, a biographer of her rationales, and an entrepreneur of her possibilities. She has to somehow manage to be simultaneously subject, object, and spectator. She is perforce &lt;i&gt;not &lt;/i&gt;learning about who she really is, but rather, provisionally buying the person she must soon become. (Mirowski, 2013, p. 108)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Mirowski's analysis of the fragmented self is fundamental to anchor the following discussion on academic writing for publication. When the philosophical unity of the subject is lost to increasingly utilitarian forms of pre-packaged, strategically saleable selfies, psychic breakdowns reveal the questioning of one's existential authenticity. These ruptures in the healthy flow of human rhythms can also be read as the &lt;i&gt;locus resistentiae &lt;/i&gt;to this fragmentation, in a cry to re-establish the severed link between subject and reality. Significantly, a parallel can be drawn between the conditions of psychopathology and arrhythmia. In both Psychoanalysis and Rhythmanalysis, in fact, detecting and evidencing the disorders produced by the breaking apart of our psyche is central to the reconstitution of its relational ontology. What, then, are the consequences for the creative process of writing, which undoubtedly subsumes the far bigger questions of thinking and being?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This leads us to a first exploration of contemporary academic writing, creativity and identity, as we find them portrayed in Helen Sword's guide on successful academic writing, here considered as representative of this genre.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_2&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;3. Air &amp; Light &amp; Time &amp; Space: Writing in Contemporary Academia&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Helen Sword's book on successful academic writing (2017) proffers a comprehensive yet non-prescriptive, realistic yet motivational, flexible yet disciplining guide for writers who want it all: increasing rates of productivity, refined craftsmanship and sheer pleasure, all of which finds its poetic synthesis in the &#8220;Air &amp; Light &amp; Time &amp; Space&#8221; to write.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Swiftly the scholar distances herself from the provocative opening entrusted to Charles Bukowski: for the poet, in fact, &#8220;air and light and time and space/have nothing to do with it&#8221;, because &#8220;if you are going to create/you're going to create&#8230; you are going to create blind/ crippled/demented&#8221;, &#8220;even with a cat crawling up your/back while/the whole city trembles in earthquake, bombardment,/flood and fire&#8221;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;See Charles Bukowski's poem &#8216; air and light and time and space' : (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh3-4&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Bukowski's possessed writer and Barthes' never-dormant Muse crystallize the myth of that suspended zone of intellectual or artistic retreat that typically culminates in an intense, nearly transcendent creative outpouring. Yet the time, spaces and atmospheres surrounding our intellectual production leave a rich reservoir of material and affective traces in our writing, determining its quality and conditioning our experience of it, for better or worse. That is why Sword turns her scholarly gaze away from the aesthetic&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;of academic prose to the lived experience of (exemplary) writers. Far from challenging the imperatives of publish or perish, the author provides a guide for surviving them, along with an array of tricks designed to help thrive in them. She takes as an example &#8211; and beacon of hope &#8211; the impressive academic records of roughly a hundred prolific writers scattered around the globe. Notwithstanding well-crafted attempts to argue in favour of more holistic, tailor-made strategies to overcome writer's blocks or carve out fragments of quiet time-space within which to produce, the reader-writer can hardly forget the damning mirage of the &#8216;Grafton line', named after a famous historian who is known to write 3,500 words every morning. Even less can they resist the temptation of measuring their own performance against that of the successful academics interviewed by Sword. The relationship with one's writing habits and outcomes is presented as idiosyncratic and connected with personality traits rather than with feelings of pain and elation that do not necessarily match the binary of the struggling and the successful writer. That is why, argues Sword, air, light, time and space have everything to do with writing. The emphasis, though, is placed firmly on of &lt;i&gt;how much&lt;/i&gt; we write and on attendant techniques to ease the conditions of production. In Sword's &#8220;House of Writing&#8221;, the psychic and affective dimensions of academic writing are neither unpacked nor problematized. Though we certainly find a useful guide that explains how to compartmentalize, project-manage, and surveil sealed aspects of what Charles Wright Mills called &#8220;intellectual craftsmanship&#8221; (Mills, 1959). Put it differently, Sword's &#8220;BASE&#8221; (Sword, 2017, p. 4) treats the behavioural, artisanal, social and emotional habits of writing as discrete outputs that can and should be maximized in order to enlarge the foundation of the house. Indeed, the diagnostic exercise the reader is invited to complete at the beginning of the book provides an instant visual assessment of the geometry of our writing defects &lt;i&gt;and&lt;/i&gt; a tactical solution in sync with Mirowski's depiction of everyday neoliberalism. Time, space, rhythms, rituals and emotions associated with writing are surgically explored by means of a strictly utilitarian code: whether you write in the dead of night or at the crack of dawn to circumvent family duties; use various time-management techniques to prod you into production;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;For example, see the Pomodoro Technique: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomodoro_&#034; id=&#034;nh3-5&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; attend writing retreats; find motivation-through-punishment as per the dictats of Write or Die, your writing will be a mark of personal and professional success. You could even reach grotesque new heights by replicating Robert Boice's sadistic experiment, where he persuaded a group of unproductive colleagues to sign personal cheques to a despised political organization with the pending threat of mailing those cheques should they fail to meet their weekly writing goals (Sword, 2017, p. 52). So long as it works. The author is cognizant of the rhetorical and substantive discrepancy that pits the organic, cyclical flows of intellectual craftsmanship against the ruthless necessities of the contemporary, accelerated rhythms of production. The solution offered promises to narrow the gap by effecting what Lefebvre warns against as a &#8220;nefarious pedagogic illusion&#8221;:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This illusion is twofold: on the one hand, a &lt;i&gt;fetishism of the partial&lt;/i&gt;, and thus of the fragmentary and the specialized, an acceptance of fragmentation and the &lt;i&gt;dismissal of totality&lt;/i&gt;; on the other hand, a fetishism of the total, an equalizing of differences. [&#8230;] There is a middle way between the dismissal of totality and the fetishism of the partial, and critique of the everyday life can help to define it. (Lefebvre, 2002, p. 68) (emphasis added).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;When we look at the practice and experience of writing through the optic of rhythm, the limits of similar guidelines or of social media &lt;i&gt;querelles&lt;/i&gt; on whether reading, thinking and note-taking are to be considered an integral part of writing or rather discarded as procrastination,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;See for example:&#034; id=&#034;nh3-6&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; become apparent.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
We will now delve deeper into the maze and mystique of contemporary academic writing, revisiting doctoral students' experiences and approaches to writing as rhythmic occurrences. This will offer an opportunity to address disaffecting practices that often surround academic work in a bid to move writing from generation against outputs to creation through inputs, while showcasing the potential of Rhythmanalysis as a method capable of revealing the impossible disjunctions between rhythms of thinking, writing and, ultimately, being.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_3&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;4. Writing Rhythms, Rhythms of Writing&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At one of the first meetings as a doctoral candidate, the student will arrive with a chart where the writing-up period is conceived in space as a long blue bar positioned at the end of the research process and as a time that swallows up to a third &#8211; and often more &#8211; of the time allotted. For the student it is at once esoteric and abstract. The thesis cannot happen without research, but writing up suggests an exit velocity, a defined and definite point in time when the student will either acquire or possess disciplinary expertise. In turn it suggests a crescendo, a final flourish, but also a communion, when the product, the thesis, confers a title and acceptance into a community of like-minded people. Yet this is so often not the case. For students, but for many academics as well, (Hayot, 2014a), writing, and writing up, exist as a site of apprehension, a point in time and space respectively, of becoming stuck. That this is inscribed at the beginning of the research project means that it hangs over the writer like a final summit. This is the challenge with focusing on writing as a discrete output, as a task to be managed by the software of the mind towards the hardware of scholarly and institutional evaluation. It is therefore essential we &#8220;begin by recognizing that academic writing is not just a set of words on the page, but it is a &lt;i&gt;procedure&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; (Hayot, 2014b); it is, &lt;i&gt;a method of inquiry&lt;/i&gt; (Richardson, 1997) rather than an end in itself&lt;strong&gt;. &lt;/strong&gt;In this respect we argue that Rhythmanalysis and, more broadly, an educational reading of Lefebvre's philosophical teachings, have a lot to offer. Published posthumously (1992) as the fourth and final chapter of the &lt;i&gt;Critique of Everyday Life, &lt;/i&gt;the rhythmanalytical project is concerned with researching the production of human nature, to liberate it from the cages of technocratic reason, capitalistic exploitation and oppressive control. Rhythmanalysis is essentially conceived as a transformative method, as an emancipatory philosophy of life and as political &lt;i&gt;credo&lt;/i&gt;. Its Marxist and Heideggerian foundations reverberate throughout his oeuvre, where notions of everyday, alienation, appropriation and dwelling recur with rhythmic cadence. To become total persons, according to Lefebvre, we must avoid the &#8220;fetishism of the partial&#8221; and re-appropriate the time-spaces of our own existence. The critique of the everyday is therefore framed dialectically as a method, a practice and a site where transformation is on the horizon. The shift from latency to action is however contingent on the seizing of critical moments, to be enacted and lived as attempts to achieve the total realization of a possibility.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
In the first place, then, a Rhythmanalysis of academic writing can help us locate and diagnose arrhythmias in the process of intellectual production by forcing us to confront and interrogate the origin of the pathology, rather than find ways to live with it. The daunting blue line that represents the conceived space of writing up, the emphasis on the final product and the obliteration of the existential conditions of its making echo the neoliberal fragmentation of the self and the loss of enjoyment in the genesis of meaning that are central to (academic) writing. By reducing writing to output, one effaces the multitude and variety of rhythmic undulations that establish the historic provenance, present conditions and future orientations of one's intellectual efforts, producing the fetishism of the total that equalizes all the differences. How can we recover an organic conjuncture of thinking, being and writing then, one that subsume and sublate moments of crisis (e.g. writer's blocks), stasis and recovery, harnessing the energy -rhythm- that renders time and space alive? The following section will discuss material and metaphorical spaces of writing, in parallel with a political and educational reading of Rhythmanalysis, viewed as a form of re-appropriation of the mental and physical time-spaces we inhabit and produce as writers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_4&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;5. Everyday Battlefields and Non-Places: Becoming Writers&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As an advocate of writing in the postmodern epoch, marked by language games and technologies which encourage play with words and concepts (Lyotard, 1984), it is not surprising that Richardson (1997) isolates play as a procedure through which writing can be undertaken. Key to this, and following from the title of her book, &lt;i&gt;Fields of Play&lt;/i&gt;, is the position of play as writing within, in and around fields. Drawing on Bourdieu, a scholar both of fields of knowledge (2010) and of play and games (1993), Richardson sees that fields are the site and sight of writing, to the point where these fields become more about plying academic battles in the boardroom, than playing creatively with words. These are not fields of expansiveness, or of introspection, but of constriction, even contrition, where excuses are made for the trajectory of work, for undertaking writing as a procedure.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
While modern architectural innovations such as social learning spaces may suit twenty-first-century students, batteries of open plan offices, marked and sold by their relationship to spaces of &#8220;air and light&#8221;, mean that the fields of the modern University become closer to a synopticon, where the few (staff) are surveilled by the many (students, management) (Mathiesen, 1997). Consistent with Sword's account, more than a few early career and seasoned academics who have respectively attended writing classes and retreats in our Professional Doctorate programme&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb3-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Professional Doctorate programme run by the authors at a post-92 British (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh3-7&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;, for instance, reported that they are unable to write while they are physically located at work as the expectation of availability is simply too evident. Interestingly, for advocates of air and light, open plan offices are described as transparent. In common with cultures of surveillance, these are fields where play, both as a battle and as a game cannot occur, as access through and within these spaces, as Richardson explains, is too smooth. Writing is indeed a procedure that needs to be grasped, wrestled with, pitched, thrown around. Even in the abstract, the procedure of writing remains intense, surrounded by verbs of battle, of fields to be explored, exhausted, pushed against, overcome, even defeated. In these spaces then, the act of writing may not have changed, but the fields of play, the spaces themselves, have altered. As a space that is at once material and abstract, the English higher education sector can be read as a race between individuals, faculties, institutions and units of assessment to occupy the conceived spaces and grades of the Research Excellence Framework (REF) and, more recently, the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF). These mimic the fields of competition illustrated earlier on: grade point averages, top ten, top spot, bronze, silver and gold awards. The quantification of these in terms of league tables, scores and grades, is a sign of the &#8220;academy sobering up [a] 12 step programme: one day at a time, one funding bid at a time&#8221; (Highmore, 2017, p.242). However, in spite of the challenges of surveillance and competition, the assimilation, creation and dissemination of knowledge still appears as the prime aim of the university and the academic.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
As for the doctoral student, writing for early career and mature academics suggests a special time-space to be set apart from the everyday. For some, inured to the rhythms of the strip-lit corridors of the institution, this occurs in the early hours of the day, say between 4.00am and 6.00am, before work and the world interfere. For others, writing happens between 10.00pm and 2.00am. The location is in those everyday spaces that are nominally reserved for other things, that are themselves part of linear and circular, repetitive and reassuring rhythms: eating at the dining room table, food preparation in the kitchen, responding to communication at the desk in the hallway.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
However, writing time is located in the everyday, even when it is barely sutured to its edges. Its position and process, content and procedure show writing to be nonetheless the rhythmic conjuncture that Highmore, referring to Althusser and Balibar, describes as a meeting point between time and history, realized in space (2018, p. 253).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
It is orientated towards the future, written for another set of eyes to ponder, critique and attach meaning to. Extrapolated to consideration around the space and time of writing, this is the Augenblick, &#8220;where future and past collide in the present, as the temporality of the moment&#8221; (Elden, 2005, p. 49): in the blink of an eye something is created. This is a continuing theme through writing and method from philosophy through sociology to cultural studies: for Lefebvre it is the rhythm, for Simmel the snapshot, a fleeting image, for Barthes short mythologies, for Baudrillard the theory-fiction essay complemented by photography. That these are experiences common to all, shows the possibilities that are evident in all writing: that the true revolutions happen at a point in time where the everyday is inscribed and described.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Given the complexities surrounding writing, the bodily rhythms and habits that must be turned upside down to achieve it, the sheer force of will that is required to capture the conjuncture in everyday life, the procedure becomes a creative act brought together, documented on the page. It is the Lefebvrian constellation of moments that documents the seizing of those spaces as sites of resistance in the fields of play that surround, enable, confirm and confine our writing time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The conjuncture of space and time in capitalist culture generally and in the university specifically, suggests that there is not enough time to create and to write, with academics increasingly appropriating the gaps and rough spaces that exist in the everyday, where moments, snapshots, mythologies and theory-fictions harmonize with linear rhythms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
That these spaces are not always to be found in the ivory towers of old is instructive. These are the rough gaps and jagged crevices in the smooth space of capital. They are the point our doctoral students must confront before the vertical ascension of &#8216;writing up' appears to them. These are places where writers identify and isolate their craft, in their conjuncture with non-places and dead-times. These are times early in the day when the city is silent, or on trains, where their crowded quiet take on the form of a modern, mobile library for study, reflection and writing. Our writers write time into the everyday, effectively producing the field of play and competition where the writing has taken place, and their position in relation to it. Yet the political and emancipatory aspirations of the rhythmanalytical project suggest that we occupy, expand and ultimately &lt;i&gt;become&lt;/i&gt; those cracks and interstices of resistance to everyday fragmentation. This means actively subverting and disorientating the imperatives of such conceived, dominated spaces (e.g. transparent, surveilled spaces, shared offices, deadlines, appraisals and so forth) to seek &#8220;a revived unity and totality of the experiential, the philosophical and the political&#8221; (Lefebvre, 2006, p. 17). That is why embracing the rhythms of writing in their totality implies a call for action that detonate dominated time-spaces and re-configure educational spaces as lived and perceived by those who infuse them with imagination and feeling, so that writing itself become a form of poetic dwelling.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_5&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;6. Conclusions: Rhythm, Critique and Intellectual Craftsmanship&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Thus one comes to conceive of writing as an interruptive becoming; the moving interval that perhaps designates itself on the basis of interdiction, but by opening the latter to discover in it not the Law, but the &lt;i&gt;speaking-between&lt;/i&gt; [&lt;i&gt;l'entre-dire&lt;/i&gt;], &lt;i&gt;inter-diction&lt;/i&gt; or the vacancy of discontinuity. (Maurice Blanchot, &lt;i&gt;The Infinite Conversation&lt;/i&gt;, 1969)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In &lt;i&gt;The Infinite Conversation&lt;/i&gt;, literary critic Maurice Blanchot describes writing as &#8220;the immediate seizing of a presence&#8221; (Blanchot, 1969, p.261) that involves a break with thought, wherein thought surrenders itself as an immediate proximity at the same time as it is a break with any empirical experience we have of the world. The activity of writing reveals in fact a moment of suspension with any state of present consciousness, being engaged as it is in the experience of the unknown or the non-manifest.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This interruptive becoming that opens itself up to the infinite possibilities of &lt;i&gt;l'entre dire&lt;/i&gt; at once embodies, represents and perpetuates the rhythmicity of writing. More than that, it reiterates the impossibility of conceiving writing without the constituent elements of thinking, reading and being, the simultaneity and circularity of which echo the ineffable return of rhythm. &lt;i&gt;Rhythmos&lt;/i&gt; does not just manifest itself as flow and form, as observed by Emile Benveniste (1971), but has the unique ability to &#8220;double-cross&#8221; itself, &#8220;the earthly and ethereal, enforcing the work of labour as much as the play of pleasure&#8221; (Henriques et al., 2014). With both traumatic and therapeutic implications, &lt;i&gt;rhythmos&lt;/i&gt; can be employed to detect hidden links and synthesize moments occurring at different temporal conjunctions, delivering a presence that carries within itself a past that could be recreated in a future synopsis and &#8211; moving backwards &#8211; a future capable of delivering its past to it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
This paper has argued that academic writing should not be seen as a sequence of discrete, disjointed activities to be individually micro-managed and optimized for productivity gains under severe time constraints. It has suggested instead that writing might be a rhythmic occurrence enmeshed in the everyday, &lt;i&gt;as a time written into everyday life&lt;/i&gt;. Far from counting merely as output, as affective accounts of writing debacles or triumphs attest, writers identify their practice with process, procedure and content. From the rhythmic constellation of activities that include thinking, exchanging views, reading, taking notes, drafting and redrafting, writing emerges as a conjuncture.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
The first part of this paper has emphasized the seamless connection between experiences of writing in contemporary academia and the fragmentation of the self that is required to maximize life chances for a subject operating in a neoliberal environment. The price to pay is an endemic state of arrhythmia born out of a fundamentally temporal mismatch:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Craft work grinds against the gears of capital. Both the production of monetary value and status are governed by accelerating rhythms: research writing and grant applications are subject to anticipatory acceleration, as key conduits of status and finance in academia. &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
There is a temporal logic at play here. [&#8230;] The clash between craft and commerce is temporal: craft work is premised on temporal irrationality precisely because it is personal. Academic craft work consumes time without promise of profit. This is the time it takes to read, to think, to experiment, to communicate. (Cannizzo, &lt;i&gt;The Sociological Review Blog&lt;/i&gt;, 2018)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The diffuse anxiety registered among academics when it comes to writing contrasts with the relaxed condition that C. Wright Mills once described as essential for the flourishing of the sociological imagination. However, a rhythmic analysis of academic writing does not just serve the purpose of detecting pathological arrhythmias. By politicising arrhythmias, the symptom of a disorder can become its own pharmakon.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
For Lefebvre it is possible to think of a pedagogy of space&#8211;time as a form of counter-space capable of revealing the breaking point of certain everyday practices and, most importantly, of signalling 'the ways in which that counter-space can be appropriated as exuberant, revolutionary, full of enjoyment and hope' (Neary &amp; Amsler, 2008, p. 107)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Wozniak (2017) for example uses Rhythmanalysis to examine what he calls debt dressage: he looks at the temporality of debt as a form of disciplining apparatus that trains indebted subjects by colonizing their existential time. Yet the double-sided nature of rhythm discloses its potential to operate as a progressive political weapon: rhythm is both produced and productive; rhythm returns without opposing itself to becoming. If we think of dressage (training) as a pedagogy of domination where the craft-time of writing increasingly struggles to keep up with the anticipatory acceleration of dominant time-economies, we won't escape a condition of permanent contrition.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
However, education, unlike technical training, 'holds the promise and possibility of invention and cannot be reduced to mechanical linear rhythms' (Wozniak, 2017, p. 503). Indeed, it can disrupt (debt) dressage by suspending it, thus freeing time. The recognition that 'resistance to hegemonic rhythms is composed of, and produces, counter-rhythms' and that &#8216;resistance itself is often an arrhythmic intervention that causes ruptures in normalized rhythmic flows of power' (Wozniak, 2017, p. 504)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Rhythmanalysis allows us to reimagine the spatio-temporality of writing (and education) as an emancipatory practice: the time-space of writing can be produced anew through a suspension of the dominant time economy. Finally liberated, air and light, time and space can coalesce in the production of what Jan Masschlein, echoing Giorgio Agamben, calls &#8220;profane&#8221; time (Masschlein, 2011), a condition in which time, space and activities such as writing, disconnected from their regular uses and conventions, become truly open for common use. Suspended, un-finished and appropriated like the interruptive becoming of an infinite conversation, this writing begs the question: what would happen if we turned the writing malaise that afflicts many academics from a site of apprehension into a site of resistance?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_6&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;Neary, M., Amsler, S. (2008) Occupy: A New Pedagogy of Space and Time? accessed online at &lt;a href=&#034;https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.lincoln.ac.uk/dist/e/185/files/2014/03/10-2-03.pdf&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.lincoln.ac.uk/dist/e/185/files/2014/03/10-2-03.pdf&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Richardson, Laurel, St. Pierre, Elizabeth (2008) &#8216;Writing: A Method of Enquiry' in &lt;i&gt;Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials&lt;/i&gt;, Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (Eds), Thousand Oaks: Sage pp 959-978.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Richardson, Laurel (1997) &lt;i&gt;Fields of Play: Constructing an Academic Life&lt;/i&gt;, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Robertson, Susan L. (2011). &#8216;The new spatial politics of (re)bordering and (re)ordering the state-education-citizen relation'. &lt;i&gt;International Review of Education &lt;/i&gt;(57) pp. 277-297.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Robertson, Susan L. (2012), &lt;i&gt;&#8220;&lt;/i&gt;Hullabaloo in the Groves of Academe&#8221;. The Politics of &#8220;Instituting&#8221; a Market in English Higher Education. Published by the Centre for Globalisation, Education and Societies, University of Bristol, UK. At: &lt;a href=&#034;http://susanleerobertson.com/publications/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;http://susanleerobertson.com/publications/&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Rosa, Harmut (2017) &#8216;De-Synchronization, Dynamic Stabilization, Dispositional Squeeze. The Problem of Temporal Mismatch'. In Wajcman, Judy, Dodd, Nigel (Eds) &lt;i&gt;The Sociology of Speed. Digital, Organizational and Social Temporalities. &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Sword, Helen (2017) &lt;i&gt;Air &amp; Light &amp; Time &amp; Space. How Successful Academics Write&lt;/i&gt;, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Vostal, Filip (2016) &lt;i&gt;Accelerating Academia. The Changing Structure of Academic Time&lt;/i&gt;, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Williams, Raymond (1977) &#8216;Structures of Feeling', in &lt;i&gt;Marxism and Literature, &lt;/i&gt;New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Wozniak, Jason Thomas (2017) &#8216;&lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2460' class=&#034;spip_in&#034; hreflang=&#034;fr&#034;&gt;Towards a Rhythmanalysis of debt dressage : Education as rhythmic resistance in everyday indebted life&lt;/a&gt;', &lt;i&gt;Policy Futures in Education &lt;/i&gt;Vol.15(4).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-1&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-1&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;For a detailed description of how the assessment of research works in England, see &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ref.ac.uk&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;http://www.ref.ac.uk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-2&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-2&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Similarly to writing for research, teaching is increasingly subjected to competitive &#8216;metricization': the Teaching Excellence Framework links excellence in teaching (measured by key performance indicators) to the possibility of charging differential fees, following classification as &#8216;Gold, Silver or Bronze' &#8211; thus paving the way for further institutional stratification. See &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.hefce.ac.uk/lt/tef/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;http://www.hefce.ac.uk/lt/tef/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-3&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-3&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;See, for instance: &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.theguardian.com/education/series/mental-health-a-university-crisis&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/education/series/mental-health-a-university-crisis&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/jun/28/student-mental-health-must-be-top-priority-universities-minister?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/jun/28/student-mental-health-must-be-top-priority-universities-minister?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-4&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-4&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;See Charles Bukowski's poem &#8216; air and light and time and space' : &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/air-and-light-and-time-and-space/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/air-and-light-and-time-and-space/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-5&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-5&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;For example, see the Pomodoro Technique: &lt;a href=&#034;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomodoro_Technique&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomodoro_Technique&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-6&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-6&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;See for example: &lt;a href=&#034;https://jovanevery.ca/real-writing-procrastination/&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;https://jovanevery.ca/real-writing-procrastination/&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb3-7&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh3-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Footnotes 3-7&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Professional Doctorate programme run by the authors at a post-92 British university.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Towards a rhythmanalysis of debt dressage : Education as rhythmic resistance in everyday indebted life
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2460</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article2460</guid>
		<dc:date>2019-10-25T21:39:35Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Jason Thomas Wozniak
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;This paper has already been published in Policy Futures in Education, 0(0) 1&#8211;14, 2017. It is freely available on Academia. We thank Jason Thomas Wozniak for the permission to republish it here. Abstract : Debt shapes subjectivity by rhythmically training indebted subjects. Stated slightly differently, there exists a debt dressage that produces indebted subjectivity. One of the principle aims of this article is to introduce rhythm into the debt analysis debates. Building on Henri (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
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 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;This paper has already been published in &lt;/i&gt; Policy Futures in Education, &lt;i&gt;0(0) 1&#8211;14, 2017. It is freely available on &lt;a href=&#034;https://www.academia.edu/34991722/Towards_a_rhythmanalysis_of_debt_dressage_Education_as_rhythmic_resistance_in_everyday_indebted_life&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Academia&lt;/a&gt;. We thank Jason Thomas Wozniak for the permission to republish it here.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class='spip_document_4515 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_file spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt;
&lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/IMG/pdf/-85.pdf' class=&#034; spip_doc_lien&#034; title='PDF - 157 kio' type=&#034;application/pdf&#034;&gt;&lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L64xH64/pdf-b8aed.svg?1779450480' width='64' height='64' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract :&lt;/strong&gt; Debt shapes subjectivity by rhythmically training indebted subjects. Stated slightly differently, there exists a debt dressage that produces indebted subjectivity. One of the principle aims of this article is to introduce rhythm into the debt analysis debates. Building on Henri Lefebvre's book Rhythmanalysis : Space, Time and Everyday Life, this article attempts to theoretically justify, as well as engage in, a rhythmanalysis of indebted life. The article concludes with the claim that education experience can be made up of, and produce, rhythms that disrupt the production of indebted subjectivity.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Keywords : &lt;/strong&gt; Debt, indebted life, rhythm, rhythmanalysis, education&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>(Re) trouver le rythme ?
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1622</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1622</guid>
		<dc:date>2015-10-07T08:12:13Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Sylvie P
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Ce texte a &#233;t&#233; originellement publi&#233; sur le site du Centre d'Innovation et de Recherche en P&#233;dagogie de Paris. Le constat du dernier billet selon lequel le chercheur collectif peinait &#224; sauter le pas vers une r&#233;flexion moins orient&#233;e vers les questions pratiques a suscit&#233; le besoin de se replacer dans le cadre de recherche propos&#233; par le CIRPP, de revenir aux axes fondamentaux et notamment &#224; celui qui pose l'absence d'obligation de r&#233;sultats. Le CC a pu revisiter tous les th&#232;mes discut&#233;s (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Ce texte a &#233;t&#233; originellement publi&#233; sur le site du &lt;a href=&#034;http://cirpp.hypotheses.org/1589&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Centre d'Innovation et de Recherche en P&#233;dagogie de Paris&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Le constat du dernier billet selon lequel le chercheur collectif peinait &#224; sauter le pas vers une r&#233;flexion moins orient&#233;e vers les questions pratiques a suscit&#233; le besoin de se replacer dans le cadre de recherche propos&#233; par le CIRPP, de revenir aux axes fondamentaux et notamment &#224; celui qui pose l'absence d'obligation de r&#233;sultats. Le CC a pu revisiter tous les th&#232;mes discut&#233;s durant la premi&#232;re ann&#233;e et expos&#233;s dans le premier m&#233;moire. Cette session pourrait para&#238;tre redondante mais elle &#233;tait n&#233;cessaire &#233;tant donn&#233; d'une part le rythme de travail tr&#232;s soutenu des membres du CC, source de discontinuit&#233;, d'autre part le fait que de nouveaux membres sont arriv&#233;s en cours de route (enseignante Gemeau, directeur p&#233;dagogique am&#233;nagement du paysage). Les &#233;tudiants pr&#233;sents ont fait &#233;cho sans le savoir aux termes du projet d'origine en parlant de pouvoir &#171; respirer, s'oxyg&#233;ner &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Notre recherche a ceci de particulier qu'elle se propose de d&#233;finir un objet &#171; Rythmes appropri&#233;s &#187;. Pour l'instant, elle a beaucoup port&#233; sur la question de savoir &#224; quoi et &#224; qui le rythme devait &#234;tre &#171; appropri&#233; &#187; (objet de la formation, formation (Bacpro/BTS), enseignements, &#233;l&#232;ves/&#233;tudiants, enseignants) et nous avons parl&#233; de &#171; rythme &#187; en termes temporels d'alternance, sans doute influenc&#233;s en cela par l'historique de la formation mais aussi parce que &#171; la r&#233;gularit&#233; est rassurante &#187;. A y regarder de plus pr&#232;s, la notion de &#171; rythme &#187; m&#233;rite qu'on s'y attarde plus.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class='spip_document_2689 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/IMG/jpg/phto-billet-blog-3-.jpg' class=&#034;spip_doc_lien mediabox&#034; type=&#034;image/jpeg&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH333/phto-billet-blog-3--17010.jpg?1714933951' width='500' height='333' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#171; Benveniste pr&#233;cise l'&#233;tymologie et l'histoire de ce mot dans le chapitre 27 de ses &lt;i&gt;Probl&#232;mes de linguistique g&#233;n&#233;rale&lt;/i&gt; : &#171; rhuthmos &#187; est l'abstrait d'un mot qui veut dire &#171; couler &#187;. En grec, &#171; rhuthmos &#187; s'oppose &#224; la forme fixe pour d&#233;signer la forme changeante, fluide, &#171; improvis&#233;e, momentan&#233;e, modifiable &#187;. Le sens moderne existe en grec, mais r&#233;sulte d'une sp&#233;cialisation due &#224; Platon. Celui-ci applique d'abord le mot &#224; &#171; la forme du mouvement que le corps humain accomplit dans la danse, et &#224; la disposition des figures en lesquelles ce mouvement se r&#233;sout &#187;. La notion de rythme corporel est &#171; soumis[e] &#224; la loi des nombres &#187;, d'o&#249; la d&#233;termination de la forme par une &#171; mesure &#187; et son assujettissement &#224; un ordre. C'est de l&#224; que vient le nouveau sens chez Platon : la &#171; disposition &#187; &#171; constitu&#233;e par une s&#233;quence ordonn&#233;e de mouvements lents et rapides &#187;. Et enfin, &#171; c'est l'ordre dans le mouvement, le proc&#232;s entier de l'arrangement harmonieux des attitudes corporelles combin&#233; avec un m&#232;tre qui s'appelle d&#233;sormais &#8220;rhuthmos&#8221; &#187;. Le sens premier de configuration spatiale proportionn&#233;e est pass&#233; &#224; celle des mouvements dans la dur&#233;e. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Cette spatialit&#233; de la notion d'origine fait &#233;cho &#224; l'&#233;mergence presque imm&#233;diate de la question des espaces disponibles et de l'organisation de ces espaces lors des discussions avec les &#233;l&#232;ves et &#233;tudiants l'an pass&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Rhuthmos d&#233;signe donc :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La forme dans l'instant telle qu'elle est assum&#233;e par ce qui est mouvant, mobile, fluide, la forme de ce qui n'a pas de consistance organique : il convient au pattern d'un &#233;l&#233;ment fluide, &#224; une lettre arbitrairement model&#233;e, &#224; un p&#233;plos qu'on arrange &#224; son gr&#233;, &#224; la disposition particuli&#232;re du caract&#232;re ou de l'humeur. (p. 333)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#201;mile Benveniste, &#171; La notion de &#8220;rythme&#8221; dans son expression linguistique &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Cette mani&#232;re de fluer est strictement distingu&#233;e des rythmes de la nature. D'ailleurs, dans notre recherche, le rythme de la formation est n&#233;cessairement non-appropri&#233; &#224; son objet puisqu'elle ne peut pas suivre le rythme des saisons. Nous sommes dans de l'espace-temps social et nous retrouvons une r&#233;flexion tr&#232;s actuelle sur des termes tels qu'adaptation, flexibilit&#233;, souplesse.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
On trouve par exemple sur &lt;i&gt;Wikip&#233;dia &lt;/i&gt; la d&#233;finition suivante de &#171; flexibilit&#233; &#187; :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En psychologie, flexible est synonyme de &lt;i&gt;souple &lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i&gt;docile&lt;/i&gt;. La &lt;strong&gt;flexibilit&#233;&lt;/strong&gt; renvoie &#224; la caract&#233;ristique d'un individu (ou d'une organisation humaine) se traduisant par la facilit&#233; &#224; appr&#233;hender des donn&#233;es sous des angles diff&#233;rents, &#224; imaginer des solutions diverses &#224; un probl&#232;me ou des usages vari&#233;s et nouveaux &#224; un objet, une m&#233;thode ou un dispositif.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;La deuxi&#232;me partie de cette d&#233;finition peut tout &#224; fait correspondre au positionnement du chercheur collectif tandis que l'association des termes &#8220;souple et docile&#8221; dans la premi&#232;re phrase exige d'&#234;tre interrog&#233;e. Une premi&#232;re consultation de dictionnaires sur le net (Larousse et Tr&#233;sor) montre qu'elle n'est pas explicitement pr&#233;sente mais transpara&#238;t dans le Larousse avec les acceptions suivantes :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;Qui a de la souplesse, de l'aisance, de la facilit&#233; : d&#233;marche flexible.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Qui se plie aux diverses circonstances, aux influences : caract&#232;re flexible. Se pose alors la question de jusqu'o&#249; plier ? Quelles limites poser aux possibilit&#233;s de fluctuation ?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Par ailleurs, reprenons les termes d'une question pos&#233;e lors du premier temps de recherche :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;
(&#8230;) nous nous sommes attach&#233;s &#224; cette formule de rythme appropri&#233; mais rappelons l'intitul&#233; du projet : &#171; d&#233;finir le rythme d'apprentissage permettant &#224; un apprenant de r&#233;ussir son parcours de formation. &#187; &#171; Rythme d'apprentissage &#187; et &#171; rythme appropri&#233; &#187; sont-ils &#233;quivalents ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Si nous posons que &#171; rythme appropri&#233; &#187; et &#171; rythme d'apprentissage &#187; sont &#233;quivalents, c'est donc que nous consid&#233;rons que le terme &#171; appropri&#233; &#187; s'applique avant tout aux apprenants.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;blockquote class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le rythme d'apprentissage fait r&#233;f&#233;rence aux apprenants donc &#224; des &#234;tres singuliers ayant chacun un rythme d'apprentissage diff&#233;rent. Peut-on alors d&#233;finir LE rythme d'apprentissage ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Au vu du mode de fonctionnement de l'&#233;quipe p&#233;dagogique, la notion de &#171; mani&#232;re de fluer &#187; ainsi que les notions affili&#233;es d'adaptation, flexibilit&#233;, souplesse sont d&#233;j&#224; rep&#233;rables et pertinentes. Un rythme appropri&#233; n'est pas un motif isol&#233;, fixe et lin&#233;aire mais un processus permanent issu de ce que M. Barbier appellerait un &#171; champs de relations &#187;. La logique d'emploi du temps et du logiciel servant &#224; le mettre au point ne saurait pr&#233;sider &#224; ce processus &#224; variables multiples : collectivit&#233;/individualit&#233;, objet de la formation, niveau de formation, apprentissage, enseignements, diff&#233;rentes &#233;chelles temporelles, espaces d&#233;di&#233;s. C'est l'int&#233;gration de toutes ces donn&#233;es et de leur fluctuation qui permet de cr&#233;er un &#171; rythme appropri&#233; &#187;. Un &#171; Rythme appropri&#233; &#187; entendu comme &#171; mani&#232;re de fluer &#187; est une notion qualitative qui ne peut &#233;merger que d'interactions humaines dont les limites et la port&#233;e sont r&#233;fl&#233;chies. Il semble alors qu'il s'agisse moins pour l'&#233;cole de se mettre en rythme appropri&#233; que de le retrouver.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#8220;Sur le concept de rythme&#8221; : &lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique33&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8220;La forme du mouvement&#8221; : &lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article234&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8220;Temps, critique et &#233;mancipation&#8221; : &lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article739&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article739&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le rythme &#224; l'articulation de la psychanalyse et de la linguistique : &lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article429&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article429&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rythme&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rythme&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;adaptation : &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/adaptation&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;souplesse : &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/souplesse&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/souplesse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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		<title>Transformative Learning and the Rhythms of Individual and Collective Changes
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1428</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1428</guid>
		<dc:date>2014-12-10T13:48:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Michel Alhadeff-Jones
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Ce texte a d&#233;j&#224; paru dans Nicolaides, A. &amp; Holt D. (Eds.), Spaces of Transformation and Transformation of Space, Proceedings of the XIth Transformative Learning Conference. New York : Teachers College, Columbia University, 2014, p. 107-109. Nous remercions Michel Alhadeff-Jones de nous avoir propos&#233; de le reproduire ici. My research around the paradigm of complexity (e.g., Alhadeff-Jones, 2008, 2012a ; Morin, 1990/2008) and the temporal and rhythmic dimensions of education (Alhadeff- (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Autonomy and Dependency of the Locus of Transformation&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;Autonomy and Dependency of the Locus of Transformation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Discontinuities and Continuities of Transformation&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;Discontinuities and Continuities of Transformation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Power as a Capacity to Organize the Rhythms of Transformation&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;Power as a Capacity to Organize the Rhythms of Transformation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Individual and Collective Transformations as Complex Rhythmic Phenomena&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_3'&gt;Individual and Collective Transformations as Complex Rhythmic Phenomena&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;References&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_4'&gt;References&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Ce texte a d&#233;j&#224; paru dans Nicolaides, A. &amp; Holt D. (Eds.), &lt;/i&gt; Spaces of Transformation and Transformation of Space, &lt;i&gt;Proceedings of the XIth Transformative Learning Conference. New York : Teachers College, Columbia University, 2014, p. 107-109. Nous remercions Michel Alhadeff-Jones de nous avoir propos&#233; de le reproduire ici.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
My research around the paradigm of complexity (e.g., Alhadeff-Jones, 2008, 2012a ; Morin, 1990/2008) and the temporal and rhythmic dimensions of education (Alhadeff- Jones, in press, 2010 ; Alhadeff-Jones, Lesourd, Roquet &amp; Le Grand, 2011) brings me to challenge three core assumptions that may limit our understanding of the relationships between individual and collective changes, as they relate to the experience of transformative learning (Mezirow, 1991 ; Taylor, Cranton &amp; Associates, 2012). First, Mezirow's contribution relies on a conception of individual and collective beings as &#171; atoms &#187; separate from each other within their own individualities. Second, his theory defines the idea of transformation assuming that it occurs in-between states of relative stability. Third, it tacitly assumes that emancipatory learning necessary leads to social change. Inspired by the experience of the birth of my first child, as part of my family &#8211; and my own &#8211; on-going transformation, this communication aims at challenging those three assumptions and suggests complementary views in order to consider the locus and dynamics of individual-collective transformations, as well as the way they relate to micro and macro power dynamics. In order to proceed, this communication will be mainly inspired by the rhythmic conception of power and individuation proposed by the contemporary historian and philosopher Pascal Michon (2005). Understood specifically &#171; as a complex temporal organization of processes by which psychic and collective individuals are produced &#187; (p.17), Michon's conception of &lt;i&gt;rhuthmos &lt;/i&gt;(Ancient Greek term at the root of &#171; rhythm &#187;, which literally means &#171; way of flowing &#187; (&lt;i&gt;mani&#232;re de fluer&lt;/i&gt;)) represents indeed a stimulating entry point in order to conceive the complexity of individual and collective transformations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Autonomy and Dependency of the Locus of Transformation &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Modern psychological and sociological theories consider individuals (e.g., baby, parent, family) as separated and interacting with each other according to a more or less stable and structured system of interrelations. As already pointed out by sociologists such as Elias (1970, quoted in Michon, 2005), this &#171; atomized &#187; interpretation &#8211; as well as the stability of the structuralist or systemic views it supports &#8211; remains nevertheless problematic. Instead of positing the existence of a (psychological or social) being antecedent to the movements that animate it, Michon recommends to start from these movements in order to understand how these psychic and collective beings are formed. Thus, if we can still distinguish the members of a family as relatively autonomous from each other, we have to consider them as mutually dependent in order to grasp the &lt;i&gt;locus &lt;/i&gt;of the transformations that affect them. For instance, a new born's lack of autonomy impacts directly the parents' margins of freedom, and how they relate on others for support. Such an organization is by itself in perpetual move. What changes with time is not only the baby's physical and psychological skills, it's the whole physical and living fabric they belong to. Behaviors such as breastfeeding, carrying, putting to sleep or singing are constituted of body and linguistic rhythms that influence simultaneously the parents' and the baby's own ways of moving, talking, thinking, positioning themselves in regard of each other, etc. Transformations affecting intimacy, trust, safety, shared values or identity emerge from this fabric as well. They are produced by the flow of interrelations between the intertwined and interdependent movements of the bodies, affects, thoughts, discourses and behaviors. As such, they are also the product of historical influences that determine such rhythms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Discontinuities and Continuities of Transformation &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The evolution of the family fabric &#8211; and the broader social fabric within which it is intertwined &#8211; is at the same time ordered and chaotic, predictable and unpredictable. This is particularly true with a baby ! In this context, transformation can be interpreted at the same time as : a) the developmental process of a (psychological or social) being (e.g., baby, parent, family) punctuated by discontinuities ; &lt;i&gt;and &lt;/i&gt;b) the expression of the on-going flow of changes that drives our lives. On one hand, Mezirow (1991) assumes that transformations require some forms of disruption and occurs in between two states of relative stability. From this perspective, critical events, &lt;i&gt;&#233;preuves&lt;/i&gt;, or epiphanies, play a central role as catalysts for changes and transitions. On the other hand, transformations can be experienced in a much more subtle way, occurring through periodic experiences that involve the regular repetition of small scale changes eventually leading to an emerging activity. From the very first beats of the embryo's heart cells to the first words spoken, the evolution of a child is made of such incremental changes. If the structure of its transformation (e.g., developmental stages) may be described, its singularity (e.g., its timing and movement) remains impossible to predict with accuracy. The same is true with the evolution of the parents, the family and society itself. This complexity requires therefore one to envision stability as a provisional state emerging from instable conditions (Alhadeff-Jones, 2012a, 2012b). In addition, transformative learning's duality (e.g., discontinuities and continuities, linearity and repetitions, stability and instability) suggests one to conceive it as a rhythmic phenomenon (Alhadeff-Jones, in press).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_2&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Power as a Capacity to Organize the Rhythms of Transformation&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Like other humanist contributions in adult education, Mezirow's theory assumes that perspective transformation and emancipatory learning implicitly lead to social change (Finger and As&#249;n, 2001). The nature of the relationship between power and transformation itself remains however unclear (Alhadeff-Jones, 2012a). Michon (2005) suggests one to conceive power as that which organizes, controls and influences the ongoing flow of transformations that characterizes the process of individuation experienced by psychological or social beings. From this perspective, if transformative learning involves rhythmic phenomena (e.g., body, language, thought, behaviors, social configuration), then power refers to the capacity to control and organize the way they flow. Considering the birth of a child from this perspective means that the rhythms that shape its evolution represent an ongoing political process. For instance, the temporalities involved in the delivery (e.g., when to induce ? when to come to the hospital ? when to give pain reduction ? when to give a caesarian ? how long to stay for recovery ?) reveal critical tensions between the embryo's development, the mother's body, the doctor's expertise, their respective preferences (e.g., level of medical assistance), their interests and values, as well as society's standards (e.g., social expectations, pace of life). Later, the transformations of the family life are also shaped by temporal antagonisms revealing conflicting interests that require negotiation : between parents and child (e.g., setting limits, being patient), between parents (e.g., availability, flexibility, work-life balance) ; between family needs, state and institutional policy (e.g., health care and day care's age/duration requirements). Such decisions do not only involve (inter-) personal dilemmas ; they are embedded in a broader cultural and political arena, shaped by its own rhythms and history. According to this perspective, transformative learning appears therefore as : a) organized by the power struggles that determine the way it evolves through time ; and b) an opportunity to influence ongoing power dynamics by negotiating the rhythms experienced in the everyday life.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_3&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Individual and Collective Transformations as Complex Rhythmic Phenomena &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;According to Michon (2005), the world we are living in shares many commonalities with the period of the first globalization (1890-1940) ; a period that a broad range of thinkers &#8211; from anthropology, sociology, linguistics and literary theory &#8211; has studied referring to the notion of rhythm (e.g., rhythmic aspects of social movements, psychic rhythm, rhythmic analysis of popular culture and political system, relationship between linguistic rhythms and social transformations). Michon's conception of &lt;i&gt;rhuthmos &#8211; &lt;/i&gt;as a specific &#171; way of flowing &#187; (&lt;i&gt;mani&#232;re de fluer&lt;/i&gt;) &#8211; represents therefore an engaging approach to conceive individual and collective transformations. It should bring us to : 1) consider such phenomena as moving and flowing, rather than through their stable features only ; 2) embrace the duality of transformations as ordered and disordered phenomena involving discontinuities and continuities, linearity and repetitions, stability and instability ; and 3) interpret power dynamics as rhythmic organizers influencing, as well as they may be influenced, by the heterogeneous flow (e.g., embodied, linguistic, psychological, social) through which individuals form and transform themselves.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_4&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Alhadeff-Jones, M. (2008). Three generations of complexity theories : Nuances and ambiguities. &lt;i&gt;Educational Philosophy and Theory, 40&lt;/i&gt;(1), 66-82.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alhadeff-Jones, M. (2010). Learning to challenge time in adult education : A critical and complex perspective. In B. Merrill (Ed.), &lt;i&gt;40&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;th &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;annual standing conference on university teaching and research in the education of adults (SCUTREA)&lt;/i&gt;. Warwick, UK.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alhadeff-Jones, M. (2012a). Transformative learning and the challenges of complexity. In E. W. Taylor &amp; P. Cranton (Eds.), &lt;i&gt;The handbook of transformative learning &lt;/i&gt;(pp. 178-194). San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alhadeff-Jones, M. (2012b). Learning disorders : From a tragic to an epic perspective on complexity. &lt;i&gt;Complicity : An International Journal of Complexity and Education, 9&lt;/i&gt;, 2, i-vi.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alhadeff-Jones, M. (in press). &lt;i&gt;Time and complexity. Theorizing the rhythms of empowerment in education&lt;/i&gt;. London : Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Alhadeff-Jones, M., Lesourd, F, Roquet, P., &amp; Le Grand, J.-L. (2011). Questioning the temporalities of transformative learning in a time of crisis. In Alhadeff-Jones, M. &amp; Kokkos, A. (Eds.), &lt;i&gt;Transformative learning in time of crisis : Individual and collective challenges. &lt;/i&gt;Proceedings of the 9th international transformative learning conference. New York &amp; Athens, Greece : Teachers College, Columbia University &amp; The Hellenic Open University.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Finger, M., &amp; As&#250;n, J.M. (2001). &lt;i&gt;Adult education at the crossroads. Learning our way out&lt;/i&gt;. New York : Zed Books.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mezirow, J. (1991). &lt;i&gt;Transformative dimensions of adult learning&lt;/i&gt;. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mezirow, J. (2000). &lt;i&gt;Learning as transformation : Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. &lt;/i&gt;San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Michon, P. (2005). &lt;i&gt;Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation&lt;/i&gt;. Paris : PUF.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Morin, E. (1990/2008). &lt;i&gt;On complexity&lt;/i&gt;. Cresskill, NJ : Hampton Press.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Taylor, E., Cranton, P., &amp; Associates (2012). &lt;i&gt;Handbook of Transformative Learning : Theory, Research and Practice&lt;/i&gt;. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>An&#225;lisis de aula : ritmo, concepto, v&#233;rtigos argumentativos
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1314</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1314</guid>
		<dc:date>2014-10-03T07:00:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Mauricio Langon, Marisa Berttolini, Isabel Gonz&#225;lez
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Consideraciones introductorias Presentamos aqu&#237; un avance de an&#225;lisis de un proyecto de investigaci&#243;n sobre ense&#241;anza y aprendizaje de la argumentaci&#243;n que realizamos observando clases de filosof&#237;a y de biolog&#237;a de seis profesores de cada disciplina en cuatro Liceos p&#250;blicos y dos privados. Adem&#225;s organizamos actividades argumentativas de aula a comienzos y finales de los cursos en el a&#241;o 2012, con el fin de observar los eventuales avances en lo argumentativo. Presentamos en este (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Consideraciones introductorias&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;Consideraciones introductorias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Consideraciones te&#243;ricas&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;Consideraciones te&#243;ricas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Criterios para el an&#225;lisis de discusiones en el aula desde estas categor&#237;as&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;Criterios para el an&#225;lisis de discusiones en el aula desde estas categor&#237;as&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;An&#225;lisis de un debate en el aula&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_3'&gt;An&#225;lisis de un debate en el aula&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Anexos&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_4'&gt;Anexos&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Bibliograf&#237;a mencionada&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_5'&gt;Bibliograf&#237;a mencionada&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Consideraciones introductorias&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Presentamos aqu&#237; un avance de an&#225;lisis de un proyecto de investigaci&#243;n sobre ense&#241;anza y aprendizaje de la argumentaci&#243;n que realizamos observando clases de filosof&#237;a y de biolog&#237;a de seis profesores de cada disciplina en cuatro Liceos p&#250;blicos y dos privados.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Adem&#225;s organizamos actividades argumentativas de aula a comienzos y finales de los cursos en el a&#241;o 2012, con el fin de observar los eventuales avances en lo argumentativo. Presentamos en este trabajo los &lt;i&gt;criterios de an&#225;lisis&lt;/i&gt; que elaboramos desde las perspectivas de&lt;i&gt;ritmos&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;conceptos y v&#233;rtigos argumentales&lt;/i&gt;. Probamos su potencial anal&#237;tico en el an&#225;lisis del debate oral correspondiente a la actividad &#8220;inicial&#8221;, sobre &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221;, realizada en un Liceo P&#250;blico de Montevideo en el grupo correspondiente al docente que designamos como P6.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;En este caso, la identificaci&#243;n de los alumnos s&#243;lo est&#225; se&#241;alada algunas (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-1&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Aqu&#237; presentamos el realizado desde las dos primeras perspectivas mencionadas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Consideraciones te&#243;ricas&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ritmo&lt;/strong&gt;
&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Utilizamos&lt;/i&gt; el concepto de &lt;strong&gt;ritmos &lt;/strong&gt;(del griego &#8165;&#965;&#952;&#956;&#972;&#962;,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;&#8220;Movimiento regulado por tiempos, medida, cadencia, ritmo, regularidad, (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-2&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; &lt;i&gt;rythmos&lt;/i&gt;) redefinido como &#8220;&lt;i&gt;manera de fluir&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; (Benveniste), como elemento que permitir&#237;a la comprensi&#243;n y valoraci&#243;n de la calidad de las discusiones orales observadas (tambi&#233;n relacionadas con los trabajos escritos). La buena calidad argumentativa en una &lt;i&gt;discusi&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; incluye valorar su &lt;i&gt;buen ritmo&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;euritmia &lt;/i&gt;del&lt;i&gt; griego&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;&#949;&#965;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;eu :&lt;/i&gt; &#8220;bien&#8221; en todos sus sentidos).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Nos interesan los &lt;i&gt;ritmos de la discusi&#243;n argumentativa en clase&lt;/i&gt; -y no s&#243;lo los argumentosy argumentaciones- en tanto podr&#237;an potenciar o debilitar &lt;i&gt;procesos de individuaci&#243;n singulares y grupales&lt;/i&gt;. Y, m&#225;s particularmente, en tanto esos ritmos (tambi&#233;n &lt;i&gt;extraling&#252;&#237;sticos&lt;/i&gt;) podr&#237;an incidir en la generaci&#243;n de un &lt;i&gt;c&#237;rculo virtuoso &lt;/i&gt;tendiente por un lado a incidir en la formaci&#243;n de ambientes propicios para el desarrollo de discusiones argumentativas de buena calidad, que por otro lado, incidir&#237;a en la buena individuaci&#243;n (o formaci&#243;n) de personas y grupos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Para proponer &#8220;una teor&#237;a de la individuaci&#243;n singular y colectiva&#8221; Pascal Michon se apoya sobre la noci&#243;n de &#8220;ritmo&#8221;, para superar &#8220;la inadecuaci&#243;n de los conceptos de estructura y de sistema, por un lado, y de individuo e interacci&#243;n, por otro&#8221;, que dificultan pensar la novedad del mundo actual que est&#225; organizado por ritmos, es decir, &#8220;por &lt;i&gt;maneras &lt;/i&gt;(espec&#237;ficas) &lt;i&gt;de producir y de distinguir individuos singulares y colectivos&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;. Por individuaci&#243;n entiende &#8220;el conjunto de procesos corporales, ling&#252;&#237;sticos y sociales por los cuales, sin cesar, son producidos y reproducidos, aumentados y disminuidos, los individuos singulares (los individuos observados en su singularidad ps&#237;quica) y colectivos (los grupos), en el entendido de que esos dos &#250;ltimos conceptos reenv&#237;an a una serie de fen&#243;menos id&#233;nticos, simplemente observados desde dos puntos de vista opuestos&#8221;. En la actualidad el poder &#8220;se juega ante todo en la organizaci&#243;n y el control de los procesos de individuaci&#243;n, as&#237; como en las clasificaciones que producen&#8221;. En ese marco, &#8220;la cuesti&#243;n m&#225;s dif&#237;cil e importante de todas, es aquella de la mayor o menor &lt;i&gt;calidad&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;&#8220;Plus ou moins grande qualit&#233;&#8221;.&#034; id=&#034;nh4-3&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;de los ritmos de individuaci&#243;n y de los diversos poderes que ah&#237; se expresan. Si (...) la individuaci&#243;n est&#225; determinada por la organizaci&#243;n r&#237;tmica de la corporeidad, de la discursividad y de la sociabilidad ; y si el poder puede, desde entonces, ser comprendido como control de esa organizaci&#243;n y las clasificaciones que de ella se derivan, se plantea la cuesti&#243;n de saber de qu&#233; criterios &#233;ticos y pol&#237;ticos disponemos para evaluar, y eventualmente combatir o promover, esas formas r&#237;tmicas de individuaci&#243;n y los poderes que se juegan en ellas&#8221;.(Michon, 2007, 30-33)&lt;i&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Se pregunta, entonces, &#8220;lo que pueden o podr&#237;an ser las &lt;i&gt;formas justas de un mundo fluidificado&lt;/i&gt;&#8221;, de modo que &#8220;la democracia llegue a ser una m&#225;quina pol&#237;tica de producir una individuaci&#243;n de calidad&#8221;. El &#8220;objetivo &#233;tico y pol&#237;tico&#8221; ser&#237;a asegurar la maximizaci&#243;n de la individuaci&#243;n tanto singular como colectiva, mediante la &#8220;puesta en tensi&#243;n del &lt;i&gt;s&#237;&lt;/i&gt; y del colectivo&#8221;. Ver &#8220;la individuaci&#243;n como un aumento de la experiencia, un crecimiento del poder de actuar y no una profundizaci&#243;n de la separaci&#243;n con los otros (Michon, 2007, 239).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Tomaremos en cuenta estas ideas a la hora de valorar la educaci&#243;n, espec&#237;ficamente en el aula (&#191;un hecho social total ?), y en los momentos en que la producci&#243;n de individualidades singulares y colectivas pasa, no tanto por la transmisi&#243;n de conocimientos, como por la circulaci&#243;n de argumentos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Sobre esta base consideramos tambi&#233;n estudios r&#237;tmicos relativos a la m&#250;sica y la danza que asumen que &#8220;La esencia del ritmo es la preparaci&#243;n de un nuevo evento mediante la finalizaci&#243;n de uno anterior. Una persona que se mueve r&#237;tmicamente no necesita repetir con exactitud ninguno de sus movimientos. &#201;stos, sin embargo, deben ser gestos completos, para que uno pueda sentir su principio, su prop&#243;sito y consumaci&#243;n y ver en la &#250;ltima etapa de uno la condici&#243;n y, de hecho, el principio de otro. El ritmo es el establecimiento de nuevas tensiones al terminarse las anteriores. No necesitan en absoluto ser de igual duraci&#243;n ; pero la situaci&#243;n que engendra la nueva crisis debe ser inherente al desenlace de la que la precede&#8221; (Langer, cit. por Zorrilla). En esta aproximaci&#243;n, &lt;i&gt;cada movimiento es completo, &lt;/i&gt;una &lt;i&gt;unidad &lt;/i&gt;que podr&#237;a considerarse cerrada, pero que &lt;i&gt;engendra una nueva crisis inherente a su desenlace&lt;/i&gt;, y exige un &lt;i&gt;nuevo movimiento r&#237;tmico, &lt;/i&gt;lo que pone de manifiesto la &lt;i&gt;apertura&lt;/i&gt; del anterior en una serie imprevisible de &lt;i&gt;movimiento sin acabados.&lt;/i&gt; Esta concepci&#243;n ya no piensa al ritmo &lt;i&gt;desde&lt;/i&gt; la repetici&#243;n, la duraci&#243;n, la medici&#243;n, el n&#250;mero, sino como la 'forma en que los acontecimientos en un discurso se relacionan entre s&#237;' (Zorrilla, 2012, b). Zorrilla se rebela contra considerar &lt;i&gt;inferior&lt;/i&gt; el no cumplimiento riguroso de una regla impuesta previamente, como &#8220;no entrar a tiempo&#8221; ; y contra considerar &lt;i&gt;superior&lt;/i&gt; que &#8220;todos levanten el brazo en el 2&#8221;, como si se tratara de &#8220;una cuenta que todos debemos seguir&#8221;. Sostiene que el ritmo no est&#225; ligado necesariamente a determinada organizaci&#243;n m&#233;trica : &#8220;es una experiencia vital&#8221; no medible, es &lt;i&gt;acci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; siempre del &#8220;actor&#8221; y de los &#8220;espectadores&#8221; ; es decir, de todos los &lt;i&gt;interlocutores&lt;/i&gt;. E impacta simult&#225;neamente en &lt;i&gt;otros niveles&lt;/i&gt;, en los que tiene &lt;i&gt;efectos&lt;/i&gt; ; en los que &lt;i&gt;induce otros ritmos&lt;/i&gt;. As&#237; una m&#250;sica, un insulto, una danza, un argumento, un golpe, una descarga de adrenalina&#8230; pueden generar&lt;i&gt; movimientos &lt;/i&gt;en muy diversos niveles que pueden afectar tanto a las personas (ritmo card&#237;aco, llanto, hu&#237;da, pensamiento, reacci&#243;n, etc.) como a los grupos (pueden incidir en su individuaci&#243;n como tal, en la argumentaci&#243;n, en las relaciones entre sus integrantes, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Concepto&lt;/strong&gt;
&lt;BR/&gt;
La perspectiva que empleamos para el trabajo sobre &#8220;&lt;i&gt;concepto&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; toma en cuenta el lugar central que su creaci&#243;n y cr&#237;tica tiene en la actual discusi&#243;n sobre &lt;i&gt;qu&#233; es filosof&#237;a&lt;/i&gt; y, por tanto, en la discusi&#243;n sobre el rol y alcances de la&lt;i&gt; discusi&#243;n argumentativa&lt;/i&gt; misma.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Al respecto nos remitimos a textos muy espec&#237;ficos que sostienen (a) que crear conceptos implica &lt;i&gt;hacer imposible el di&#225;logo&lt;/i&gt; ; (b) que es necesario abandonar la &lt;i&gt;claridad conceptual&lt;/i&gt; como condici&#243;n de posibilidad de orientaci&#243;n en la acci&#243;n ; (c) que es preciso &lt;i&gt;liberar su uso&lt;/i&gt; de los marcos te&#243;ricos o constelaciones conceptuales que los originaron, como condici&#243;n de posibilidad del &lt;i&gt;di&#225;logo argumentativo&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pero principalmente nos remitimos a los aportes referidos a &#8220;concepto&#8221; y &#8220;definici&#243;n&#8221; tal como los presentan V&#237;ctor Thibaudeau y Joaquim Neves Vicente quienes consideran el &#8220;estudio de la primer operaci&#243;n de la inteligencia&#8221; como base ineludible de la argumentaci&#243;n y de su ense&#241;anza a nivel secundario, a fin de elaborar criterios de an&#225;lisis de los conceptos en la argumentaci&#243;n en el aula.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El fil&#243;sofo canadiense Victor Thibaudeau describe la estructura de la ense&#241;a de filosof&#237;a, l&#243;gica y argumentaci&#243;n en las escuelas primarias y secundarias de su pa&#237;s, donde &#8220;cada profesor de filosof&#237;a puede dar el curso en el que cree, y de la manera que le parece m&#225;s adecuada. Esto es garant&#237;a de &#233;xito : &#8220;hacer con entusiasmo&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;&#8220;c&#339;ur&#8221;.&#034; id=&#034;nh4-4&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; e inteligencia lo que se cree que es lo mejor&#8221;. Y donde los hechos y conceptos (los contenidos tem&#225;ticos) no son presentados &#8220;de manera escolar ni mucho menos dogm&#225;tica, sino por y a trav&#233;s del di&#225;logo&#8221;. Pero establecer un &#8220;verdadero di&#225;logo en una clase de primaria o secundaria, y despu&#233;s en la sociedad, no es cosa f&#225;cil&#8221; : no es un simple debate para ganar, por ejemplo, mediante una votaci&#243;n, ni un mero intercambio de ideas.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;&#8220;Un di&#225;logo en el sentido pleno del t&#233;rmino pone en juego una deliberaci&#243;n (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-5&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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En ese contexto sostiene que &#8220;la ense&#241;anza de la l&#243;gica deber&#237;a poner el acento sobre lo que tradicionalmente se llama &#8216;la primera operaci&#243;n de la inteligencia' : la captaci&#243;n y definici&#243;n de las cosas&#8221; (Thibaudeau, 2010, 21). La l&#243;gica tradicional &#8220;distingue tres cuestiones que son presentados como el resultado de tres operaciones de la inteligencia : la definici&#243;n, la enunciaci&#243;n y el razonamiento. Ella estudia, para decirlo simplemente, el conocimiento que hay detr&#225;s de las palabras, detr&#225;s de las frases enunciativas y detr&#225;s de los p&#225;rrafos argumentativos&#8221;, &#8220;los productos de tres actividades distintas del pensamiento : uno, fundamental, no es ni verdadero ni falso ; el segundo presenta algo como verdadero pero c&#225;ndidamente, sin justificaci&#243;n ; por eso puede ser tanto verdadero como falso ; el tercero no es, sin embargo, presentado simplemente como verdadero : est&#225; &lt;i&gt;sostenido, justificado, probado, explicado&lt;/i&gt;. Hay, en efecto, una diferencia radical entre &lt;i&gt;decir&lt;/i&gt; que algo es verdadero, y &lt;i&gt;sostenerlo&lt;/i&gt;.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
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El primero describe el estudio del concepto : &#8220;Una palabra como un sustantivo, un adjetivo, un verbo o un adverbio, expresa en s&#237; mismo un objeto de pensamiento (un concepto)&#8221; que &#8220;no es ni verdadero ni falso ; pero puede ser &lt;i&gt;descrito&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;definido&lt;/i&gt;, bien o mal&#8221;. En este primer momento la l&#243;gica se interesa (a) &#8220;por la manera en que ha sido formado ese objeto de pensamiento, (b) por las relaciones que puede mantener con otros diversos objetos de pensamiento&#8221;, (c) &#8220;por las diversas maneras en que puede ser nombrado y definido&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
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Ese estudio &#8211;fundamental seg&#250;n el autor&#8211; ha sido &#8220;un tema gravemente descuidado en las obras contempor&#225;neas de l&#243;gica&#8221; que &#8220;prestan mucha atenci&#243;n al razonamiento y sus posibles fallas&#8221;, pero no toman en cuenta que muchos de los problemas que se plantean a ese nivel &#8220;se relacionan subrepticiamente con problemas que conciernen de hecho a la primera operaci&#243;n de la inteligencia&#8221;. &#8220;Los problemas m&#225;s importantes, o al menos los que ocupan la mayor parte de nuestras deliberaciones, tocan &lt;i&gt;el contenido&lt;/i&gt; de los enunciados ; y el primero de esos problemas es &#8216;&#191;es verdad ?', &#8216;&#191;estamos justificados para admitir esta premisa ?'&#8221;. Detr&#225;s se perfila una larga lista de preguntas, entre otras : &#191;Es necesario o contingente ?, &#191;Es verdadero a veces pero no siempre ?, &#191;Hay razones para rechazar esa premisa ?, &#191;Hay matices a aportar ?. &#191;Qu&#233; dice en el fondo ese enunciado ? : &#191;define a su sujeto ? &#191;lo diferencia de otros ? &#191;lo describe ?. &#191;Expresa una explicaci&#243;n, una causa, una raz&#243;n, una excusa ? &#191;Qu&#233; rol juega ese enunciado en esa concreta discusi&#243;n argumentativa ? &#191;Expresa lo que piensa su autor ?, &#191;lo que sabe ?, &#191;una idea a criticar ?, &#191;un enga&#241;o ?&lt;/p&gt;
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Estas cuestiones suelen entrar (en obras de l&#243;gica informal y filosof&#237;a para ni&#241;os, por ejemplo) bajo r&#250;bricas como &#8220;aceptabilidad de las premisas&#8221; o &#8220;valoraci&#243;n de una argumentaci&#243;n&#8221;, pero &#8220;la mayor&#237;a conciernen a la primera operaci&#243;n de la inteligencia&#8221; y deber&#237;a ser estudiada a ese nivel y no confundirla con los niveles enunciativos o argumentativos. El autor reconoce las dificultades que esto implica en la ense&#241;anza, en el contexto actual de abandono de la l&#243;gica tradicional debida en parte a la simplificaci&#243;n deformadora que &#233;sta sufri&#243; en los manuales de educaci&#243;n secundaria, y propone volver al estudio sistem&#225;tico y la ense&#241;anza de &#8220;la operaci&#243;n l&#243;gica que est&#225; detr&#225;s de la definici&#243;n.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Esta investigaci&#243;n considera la argumentaci&#243;n y su ense&#241;anza en la pr&#225;ctica (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-6&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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Joaquim Neves Vicente constata las grandes dificultades que suelen tener los alumnos para &#8220;expresar sus ideas por escrito (y oralmente) de manera clara, precisa y coherente&#8221;. No son s&#243;lo dificultades de orden ortogr&#225;fico o gram&#225;tico, sino que &#8220;el problema principal hunde su ra&#237;z en un pensamiento mal organizado y nebuloso&#8221;. De ah&#237; la necesidad de ense&#241;ar el &#8220;buen manejo de los instrumentos b&#225;sicos del pensamiento y del discurso&#8221; (lo que incluye la capacidad de &#8220;conceptualizar, problematizar y argumentar&#8221;) mediante una buena did&#225;ctica de la argumentaci&#243;n que no prescinda del &#8220;trabajo did&#225;ctico de conceptualizaci&#243;n&#8221; que incluya tareas de &#8220;defici&#243;n y divisi&#243;n&#8221;, de &#8220;distinci&#243;n conceptual&#8221; y de &#8220;relaci&#243;n conceptual&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
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Esta ense&#241;anza no puede ser desarrollada efectivamente si esos instrumentos no son &#8220;puestos en pr&#225;ctica efectivamente del primer al &#250;ltimo d&#237;a de clases, de forma continuada y progresiva&#8221; priorizando una &lt;i&gt;l&#243;gica utens&lt;/i&gt;, &#8220;una iniciaci&#243;n pr&#225;ctica y contextual a la argumentaci&#243;n y al debate oral en el aula&#8221;, un &#8220;aprendizaje &lt;i&gt;invivo&lt;/i&gt; de la raz&#243;n y del esp&#237;ritu cr&#237;tico&#8221;, sobre una &lt;i&gt;l&#243;gica docens&lt;/i&gt;, limitada a la transmisi&#243;n, poco provechosa, de reglas y preceptos&#8221;. (Vicente, 2010)&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;strong&gt;Violencia y v&#233;rtigos argumentales&lt;/strong&gt;
&lt;BR/&gt;
La relaci&#243;n entre argumentaci&#243;n y violencia la trabajamos en base a ideas de Carlos Pereda y considerando el an&#225;lisis el estudio que de ellas hace Eduardo Harada O.&lt;/p&gt;
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El asunto que aqu&#237; nos interesa es la relaci&#243;n entre argumentaci&#243;n y violencia, lo que incluye su relaci&#243;n con la &#233;tica.&lt;/p&gt;
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Para Pereda, &#8220;argumentar consiste en ofrecer una serie de enunciados para apoyar a otro enunciado que plantea ciertos (&#8230;) problemas en torno a nuestras creencias te&#243;ricas o pr&#225;cticas : argumentando procuramos resolver muchas dificultades que tienen que ver con nuestras creencias.&#8221;(Pereda, 1994). La argumentaci&#243;n, pues, aparece directamente relacionada con &lt;i&gt;nuestros&lt;/i&gt; juicios previos, &lt;i&gt;nuestros&lt;/i&gt; modos de pensar y hacer, &lt;i&gt;nuestros&lt;/i&gt; h&#225;bitos, una vez que los mismos han sido &lt;i&gt;problematizados&lt;/i&gt;, puestos en cuesti&#243;n. Se trata inicialmente, pues, de una cuesti&#243;n &lt;i&gt;interna&lt;/i&gt; a cada grupo humano, que en tanto es capaz de ver &lt;i&gt;problemas&lt;/i&gt; en sus creencias te&#243;ricas y pr&#225;cticas, las pone en disputa argumentativa. Esta perspectiva, no impide el &lt;i&gt;di&#225;logo&lt;/i&gt; en el sentido m&#225;s radical del t&#233;rmino, como&lt;i&gt; intercultural&lt;/i&gt;. M&#225;s bien : (a) pone de manifiesto que la argumentaci&#243;n &lt;i&gt;supone como punto de partida&lt;/i&gt;, el &#8220;fondo com&#250;n de creencias compartidas por un grupo&#8221; s&#243;lo en tanto &#233;l mismo es puesto en cuesti&#243;n, se hace problem&#225;tico para sus integrantes ; (b) por eso mismo exige su apertura al di&#225;logo &lt;i&gt;con otros&lt;/i&gt; (apertura que implica la educaci&#243;n &#233;tica argumentativa de sus propios miembros) ; (c) propone espacios de debate argumentativo, cuyos propios principios y reglas son reconocidos como originados en determinado grupo humano y, por tanto, como &lt;i&gt;parte fundamental&lt;/i&gt; de aquello a ser discutido argumentativamente.&lt;/p&gt;
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Pereda ve una sola alternativa posible : &#8220;La otra opci&#243;n b&#225;sica (&#8230;) para responder a esos problemas que tratamos con argumentos es la imposici&#243;n, la violencia.&#8221; De este modo, argumentar se opone a violentar.&lt;/p&gt;
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Pero &#8220;Violencia se dice de muchas maneras.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;La alusi&#243;n al c&#233;lebre texto de Arist&#243;teles en la Metaf&#237;sica : &#8220;Ser se dice (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-7&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Hay una violencia externa al arg&#252;ir, aquella con la cual se rompe cuando, para enfrentar ciertos problemas, se comienza a argumentar. Por ejemplo, nos encontramos en una situaci&#243;n de &#8216;violencia externa' si frente a una discrepancia, en lugar de atender los argumentos del otro, lo callamos a golpes o, de manera colectiva, iniciamos una guerra. Casi dir&#237;a, lamentablemente, que quien argumenta no est&#225;, por el s&#243;lo hecho de argumentar, dando la espalda a la violencia, hay tambi&#233;n una &#8216;violencia interna' a la argumentaci&#243;n : no pocas veces se desarrollan &#8220;argumentaciones violentas&#8221; como cuando falsificando argumentos (&#8230;) se violentan &#8211;se producen de manera violenta&#8211; los convencimientos. Al comenzar a argumentar despedimos la violencia no argumental, la violencia &#8216;en estado bruto'&#8221;. Pero tambi&#233;n hay violencia argumentativa, lo que designa como &#8220;v&#233;rtigos argumentales&#8221; : &#8220;se sucumbe a un v&#233;rtigo argumental cuando quien argumenta constantemente prolonga, confirma e inmuniza al punto de vista ya adoptado en la discusi&#243;n, sin preocuparse de las posibles opciones a ese punto de vista y hasta prohibi&#233;ndolas, y todo ello de manera, en general, no intencional&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
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&#191;A qu&#233; preocuparnos por la &#8220;violencia interna cuando estamos sumidos hasta el cuello en la violencia externa, cuando su amenaza es nuestra compa&#241;&#237;a m&#225;s desoladoramente constante ? &#191;Atender pol&#237;ticas conceptuales y una &#233;tica de la disputa, de la argumentaci&#243;n, acaso no nos distrae de los esfuerzos en relaci&#243;n con la &lt;i&gt;otra&lt;/i&gt; pol&#237;tica, con la &lt;i&gt;otra&lt;/i&gt; &#233;tica ?&#8221;, se pregunta nuestro autor. Y responde : &#8220;Nadie confunde un pu&#241;etazo en el est&#243;mago con una falacia, la guerra con v&#233;rtigos argumentales. No obstante, en primer lugar, en los dos casos estamos ante violencias que, en tanto grados de barbarie, es necesario combatir. Y, en segundo lugar, hay relaciones no menos claras que sus diferencias y hasta cierto &lt;i&gt;continuum&lt;/i&gt; entre ambos tipos de violencia : el ruido que arrincona de los golpes y de la guerra, y el ruido, no menos arrinconador de las argumentaciones violentas tienden a poseer la misma ra&#237;z, o mejor, las mismas ra&#237;ces, como lo recuerda la regla IV, a saber, los absolutos en singular de la certeza y de la ignorancia, de la imposici&#243;n de una sola voz y, en consecuencia, de la imposici&#243;n del silencio, o m&#225;s bien, de la ansiosa mudez (incluso aunque no de deje de hablar) en quienes no participan de esa voz. Adem&#225;s un tipo de violencia se apoya en el otro. Por un lado, la violencia interna, a la manera de esas argumentaciones radicalmente parciales que son los v&#233;rtigos argumentales, con frecuencia provoca violencia externa : anular las &lt;i&gt;otras razones, las razones del otro, es el primer paso para anular al otro&lt;/i&gt;&#8230;, al otro en los dem&#225;s y en s&#237; mismo. Por otro lado, la violencia externa, tiende a justificarse con violencia interna, como se dice, con &#8216;argumentaciones racionalizadoras' : no suelen darse pu&#241;etazos en el est&#243;mago y nada m&#225;s, es raro que se invadan pa&#237;ses sin apelar a la &#8216;ret&#243;rica de la violencia' &#8211;la ret&#243;rica de la sangre, de la patria, de &lt;i&gt;nuestros&lt;/i&gt; ideales&#8230;&#8211; ; casi inevitablemente se justifican los pu&#241;etazos y las invasiones como justos, leg&#237;timos, razonables&#8230;, y se justifican con palabras, con argumentos.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
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La &#8220;violencia en estado bruto&#8221; de los golpes y la guerra, es distinta de la &#8220;violencia argumental&#8221; de los &#8220;v&#233;rtigos argumentativos&#8221;. Pero la diferencia es una &#8220;cuesti&#243;n de grado&#8221;, y adem&#225;s hay relaciones estrechas entre ambas violencias : ambas &lt;i&gt;arrinconan&lt;/i&gt;, ambas imponen &lt;i&gt;una sola voz&lt;/i&gt; y una &lt;i&gt;ansiosa mudez&lt;/i&gt;. Y un tipo de violencia apoya al otro : la segunda, convoca a veces a la primera ; la primera se justifica con la segunda.&lt;/p&gt;
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Sugiere Pereda estas &#8220;reglas prudenciales&#8221; :&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;I. Con respecto a las perplejidades, conflictos y problemas de creencias, piensa que tratarlos con argumentos conforma el modelo para enfrentar esas dificultades.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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Con esta primera regla &#8220;despedimos la violencia &#8216;en estado bruto'&#8221;, pero no la que es &lt;i&gt;interna&lt;/i&gt; a los debates. Por eso, esta regla debe ser &#8220;complementada&#8221; por otras. Una, muy general :&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;II. Ten cuidado con las palabras&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-8&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Es lo que intentamos desarrollar en los p&#225;rrafos relativos a conceptos.&#034; id=&#034;nh4-8&#034;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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Otra, &#8220;m&#225;s particular, m&#225;s espec&#237;fica, pero no menos decisiva&#8221; :&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;III. Evita los v&#233;rtigos argumentales&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-9&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Es lo que estamos trabajando en este punto.&#034; id=&#034;nh4-9&#034;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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Pero, a partir de los v&#233;rtigos, se podr&#225; advertir acerca de &lt;i&gt;actitudes b&#225;sicas&lt;/i&gt; te&#243;ricas y pr&#225;cticas, que tarde o temprano acaban con el arg&#252;ir generando palabras enga&#241;osa y v&#233;rtigos argumentales. Recoge, como &#8220;lecci&#243;n de prudencia, de sabidur&#237;a&#8221;, en esta regla :&lt;/p&gt;
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IV. &lt;i&gt;Atiende que tus argumentos no sucumban a la tentaci&#243;n de la certeza o a la tentaci&#243;n de la ignorancia, pero tampoco a la tentaci&#243;n de poder o a la tentaci&#243;n de la impotencia&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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Enumera tambi&#233;n diez &#8220;indicios de la incertidumbre de la raz&#243;n&#8221;. Aqu&#237; nos interesa particularmente el IV : &#8220;Con frecuencia no hay criterios formales, criterios precisos, fijos y generales que permitan distinguir entre dos clases, por ejemplo, entre la clase de los debates vertiginosos y la clase de los debates virtuosos&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
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Harada se pregunta &#8220;qu&#233; tan &#250;til puede resultar&#8221; el instrumental te&#243;rico de Pereda &#8220;para ense&#241;ar y aprender a argumentar&#8221; (Harada 2010, 254). Sus &#8220;reglas prudenciales&#8221; le parecen &#8220;algo vagas&#8221; e &#8220;idiosincr&#225;ticas&#8221;, en el sentido de que reflejan la rara &#8220;sensibilidad argumentativa&#8221; del autor, &#8220;por lo cual no es f&#225;cil que otras personas puedan hacer uso de ellas&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_2&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Criterios para el an&#225;lisis de discusiones en el aula desde estas categor&#237;as&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tomando en cuenta las referencias te&#243;ricas anteriores, intentamos ahora, si bien no elaborar grillas interpretativas que quiz&#225;s rigidizaran excesivamente nuestros an&#225;lisis, sintetizar en algunas preguntas a plantear al &lt;i&gt;corpus&lt;/i&gt; estudiado estos criterios de an&#225;lisis&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;strong&gt;Criterios r&#237;tmicos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Nuestro intento es determinar cu&#225;les son los &lt;i&gt;buenos ritmos&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;ritmos deseables&lt;/i&gt; en una discusi&#243;n en el aula.&lt;/p&gt;
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Pero esto s&#243;lo puede hacerse a partir de la descripci&#243;n de los ritmos que se van dando para luego justipreciar su valor. Y tomando en cuenta que los instrumentos de observaci&#243;n son incapaces de captar todo lo relevante, lo que parece ser una caracter&#237;stica esencial del conocer humano. Para ello desagregamos las siguientes preguntas :&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;Criterios descriptivos&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
1. &#191;Cu&#225;les son los &lt;i&gt;ritmos&lt;/i&gt; (y &lt;i&gt;arritmias&lt;/i&gt;) que se dan en la sesi&#243;n observada ?&lt;/p&gt;
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2. &#191;Qu&#233; tipos de ritmos organizan el &lt;i&gt;ejercicio del poder&lt;/i&gt; en la clase, jerarquizando y clasificando, personas y subgrupos en el interior del aula, as&#237; como al colectivo de la clase en su conjunto ?&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;Criterio valorativo : aceptabilidad de las intervenciones&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
3. &#191;En qu&#233; medida los &lt;i&gt;modos de fluir&lt;/i&gt; logran hacer que cada &lt;i&gt;intervenci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; sea &lt;i&gt;singular y discutible&lt;/i&gt; (en el sentido de digna de ser &lt;i&gt;compartida&lt;/i&gt;, aclarada, comprendida, valorada, discutida) ?&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;Criterios valorativo : euritmia, valoraci&#243;n positiva de los ritmos como deseables o buenos.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
4. &#191;Los ritmos resultan favorables a la &lt;i&gt;individuaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; personal y colectiva ? &#191;aumentan la &lt;i&gt;fuerza &lt;/i&gt;-poder, potencia- individual y colectiva ? &#191;C&#243;mo juegan en eso los &lt;i&gt;subgrupos&lt;/i&gt; ?
&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;lo singular y lo colectivo, la individualidad y la solidaridad, &#191;se refuerzan mutuamente ? (o se oponen)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;los ritmos &#8211;individuos, subgrupos, grupo&#8211; &#191;se &lt;i&gt;cambian&lt;/i&gt;, se &lt;i&gt;reinventan&lt;/i&gt; para abrir futuros deseables (o se esclerosan, se cierran) ?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
5. El ritmo de &lt;i&gt;tensi&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;conflicto argumentativo&lt;/i&gt; &#191;es fuerte o d&#233;bil ? &#191;se debilita o se fortalece en su fluir ? (Nos propusimos analizar las &lt;i&gt;escenas conflictuales argumentativas&lt;/i&gt; tomando en cuenta la idea de Coser de que se refuerza la individualidad &lt;i&gt;y&lt;/i&gt; la comunidad&lt;i&gt;, &lt;/i&gt;cuando no se parte de &#8220;acuerdos previos&#8221; sino de &lt;i&gt;tensiones &lt;/i&gt;que obligan a individuaciones fuertes y refuerzan la comunidad y la de Simondon que entiende que el &lt;i&gt;equilibrio estable&lt;/i&gt; es el m&#225;s bajo nivel de energ&#237;a, en cambio las &lt;i&gt;tensiones internas &lt;/i&gt;inducen a &lt;i&gt;reorganizar el campo&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
6. Los &#8220;eventos&#8221; (la discusi&#243;n, sus etapas, las intervenciones extensas), tendr&#237;an &lt;i&gt;principio, desarrollo y consumaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt;, que deber&#237;a generar la&lt;i&gt; tensi&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; necesaria para la &#8220;siguiente&#8221;, seg&#250;n Langer :
&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;En lo colectivo (la clase, sus partes, sus grupos) : &#191;tienen ritmo ? &#191;generan condiciones de tensi&#243;n o crisis para seguir (en otra clase o otro evento) ?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;En lo singular ; los participantes en la actividad, antes de ella o despu&#233;s de ella (o en sus conclusiones finales) &#191;cambian ? &#191;dejan abiertas tensiones para s&#237;, para otros, para el grupo ?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
7. Seg&#250;n Zorrilla los distintos &lt;i&gt;acontecimientos&lt;/i&gt; afectan y tienen efectos &lt;i&gt;simult&#225;neos&lt;/i&gt; en otros niveles :
&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;&#191;C&#243;mo se relacionan entre s&#237; los acontecimientos en distintos niveles ?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&#191;C&#243;mo afectan diacr&#243;nicamente el desarrollo y ritmo de la clase, las arritmias, cortes, etc.?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&#191;La sesi&#243;n argumentativa en su conjunto, es experiencia vital de acci&#243;n de todos los interlocutores ? (o m&#225;s o menos se limitan a seguir lo que se espera de ellos)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Criterios valorativos sint&#233;ticos&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
1. Las ritmicidades &#191;son &lt;i&gt;fuertes &lt;/i&gt;o &lt;i&gt;d&#233;biles&lt;/i&gt; ? En el sentido de que s&#243;lo las primeras ser&#237;an un buen ritmo para comunidades argumentativas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
2. La sesi&#243;n argumentativa en su conjunto &#191;es &lt;i&gt;experiencia vital activa&lt;/i&gt; para el colectivo y cada uno de los participantes ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
3. Los eventos individuales y la sesi&#243;n misma en tanto evento : &#191;abren o cierran procesos posteriores ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Criterios para analizar conceptos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Observamos c&#243;mo son utilizados y trabajados los conceptos en el aula. Qu&#233; importancia se les da. C&#243;mo afectan la calidad de cada argumento y de la discusi&#243;n en general.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Criterios de selecci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Utilizaremos los siguientes criterios para seleccionar las palabras y conceptos a estudiar :
&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul class=&#034;spip&#034; role=&#034;list&#034;&gt;&lt;li&gt;Los que aparecen de modo m&#225;s reiterado o repetido&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Los que aparecen como importantes en la cuesti&#243;n a considerar o que aparecen como relevantes para los participantes en la discusi&#243;n&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Los que son m&#225;s trabajados conceptualmente en el transcurso del debate (si los hay)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos cuyo uso induce en el debate o podr&#237;a inducir a falacias o v&#233;rtigos argumentativos.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Criterios de an&#225;lisis descriptivo y valorativo&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
a. &#191;Se analizan y explican los t&#233;rminos y conceptos ? &#191;Se alude a c&#243;mo han sido formados ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
b. &#191;Se los define ? &#191;Se los elabora ? &#191;Se los precisa ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
c. &#191;Se los distingue ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
d. &#191;Se los clasifica ? &#191;Se los categoriza ?&#191;Se determina su tipo y sus grados ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
d. &#191;Se estudian las relaciones entre ellos ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
e. &#191;Qu&#233; rol juega ese concepto en esta concreta discusi&#243;n argumentativa ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterios para identificar y analizar violencia y &#8220;v&#233;rtigos argumentales&#8221;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;Hay formas de &#8220;violencia en estado bruto&#8221; en el debate ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;Qu&#233; grado de &#8220;violencia argumental&#8221; puede detectarse, en general, en el debate ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;En qu&#233; medida los integrantes del grupo son &#8220;esclavos de sus propios argumentos y puntos de vista&#8221; ? &#191;En qu&#233; medida se &#8220;vuelven&#8221; tales en el proceso argumentativo ? &#191;En qu&#233; medida se liberan de esa esclavitud ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;Cu&#225;les son los &lt;i&gt;momentos puntuales&lt;/i&gt; de mayor violencia ? &#191;Qui&#233;nes son sus &lt;i&gt;protagonistas&lt;/i&gt; ? &#191;Hay cambios hacia mayor o menor violencia en las intervenciones ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;Hay una &lt;i&gt;gradaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; hacia mayor o menor violencia argumental en el debate en general ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;En qu&#233; medida los &#8220;v&#233;rtigos&#8221;, son una &#8220;atracci&#243;n atroz&#8221; que va atrayendo a varios participantes ? (Relaci&#243;n con ritmo : &#8220;&#191;Podr&#237;a hablarse de un &lt;i&gt;ritmo vertiginoso&lt;/i&gt; ?) &#191;Es posible advertir &lt;i&gt;resistencias&lt;/i&gt; a esos v&#233;rtigos ? &#191;esfuerzos por no dejarse atraer ? (&#191;Podr&#237;a hablarse de un ritmo virtuoso ?)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#191;En qu&#233; medida &lt;i&gt;se va saliendo &lt;/i&gt;de los v&#233;rtigos y de la violencia en el desarrollo del debate ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_3&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;An&#225;lisis de un debate en el aula&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consideraciones introductorias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Este debate forma parte de las actividades planificadas por el equipo investigador&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-10&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Marisa Berttolini, Isabel Gonz&#225;lez y Mauricio Langon&#034; id=&#034;nh4-10&#034;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; para observar la argumentaci&#243;n en las primeras etapas de su estudio. Se desarrolla en dos &#8220;horas-aula&#8221; de filosof&#237;a. A primera hora se realizan las dos actividades individuales y escritas. La segunda, se dedica un debate argumentativo, oral y colectivo, con la siguiente pauta : &#8220;Imaginen que ustedes son el Parlamento y tienen que decidir argumentando (a favor o en contra) sobre el reconocimiento legal del matrimonio igualitario&#8221;. Se solicit&#243; al docente coordinar el debate.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El sal&#243;n es amplio, c&#243;modo, luminoso, bien amueblado. El clima es muy fr&#237;o, sin calefacci&#243;n. Participan el profesor del curso (P6), una estudiante de profesorado de filosof&#237;a que realiza su &#8220;pr&#225;ctica&#8221; en este grupo, 2 investigadores y 21 estudiantes (14 mujeres y 7 varones). El &#225;mbito es apto para sostener una discusi&#243;n argumentativa. Los estudiantes est&#225;n dispuestos en un gran semic&#237;rculo que permite que todos se vean. Esa organizaci&#243;n funciona en todo el curso de filosof&#237;a. Sin embargo, parece haber agrupamientos por afinidad y sexo. No hay distorsi&#243;n por la presencia de investigadores : el grupo hab&#237;an sido visitado por uno de ellos en sendas clases de filosof&#237;a y biolog&#237;a, y conoc&#237;an las caracter&#237;sticas de la investigaci&#243;n. Las dos actividades anteriores despertaron inter&#233;s en los estudiantes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El profesor act&#250;a de pie, movi&#233;ndose preferentemente a la izquierda o delante de su mesa y dirigiendo sus miradas y palabras ora a todos, ora a un subgrupo, ora a un estudiante en particular. Gesticula con brazos, hombrosy manos que a veces pone en los bolsillos de su abrigo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Queda resaltada cierta jerarqu&#237;a en relaci&#243;n a los estudiantes por su posici&#243;n m&#225;s elevada y central, y por su libertad de movimiento. Asume un rol protag&#243;nico (no el de mero coordinador). Act&#250;a formulando preguntas, sintetizando intervenciones, aportando informaci&#243;n, entrando en la discusi&#243;n pero sin expresar opini&#243;n. A veces selecciona interlocutores. Las miradas y palabras de los estudiantes tienden a dirigirse hacia &#233;l, de modo que los ritmos del debate dependen mucho de su mediaci&#243;n. Esta centralizaci&#243;n del debate podr&#237;a incidir negativamente en la generaci&#243;n de &lt;i&gt;buenos ritmos&lt;/i&gt;, que lleven a individuaciones singulares y colectivas.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-11&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Otra de las sesiones que seleccionamos para analizar estuvieron dirigidas (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-11&#034;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Simult&#225;neamente se van dando intercambios paralelos entre vecinos de asiento.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-12&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Estos intercambios generalmente no pueden ser observados y son captados en (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-12&#034;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;An&#225;lisis del punto de vista de los ritmos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Principio&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Los movimientos que se desarrollan al inicio del debate, influyen sensiblemente en su &lt;i&gt;manera de fluir &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;ritmo&lt;/i&gt;). Por eso nos detenemos en el an&#225;lisis del &lt;i&gt;planteo&lt;/i&gt;de la discusi&#243;n. (1-20)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Descripci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El profesor comienza : &#8220;La actividad 3 es oral y colectiva. Es decir, vamos a participar todos hablando &#191;verdad ? Creo yo que eso se entiende...Dice : &#8216;Imaginen que ustedes son el parlamento'. El parlamento es ah&#237;... donde est&#225;n los pol&#237;ticos&#8221;. Se oye un &#8220;&#161;Ya lo s&#233; !&#8221; y muchas risas. Este modo de introducir el debate &#8220;rompe el hielo&#8221; y da cierta informalidad a la discusi&#243;n, facilitando un flujo &#8220;descontracturado&#8221;. Pero tambi&#233;n arriesga trivializar la discusi&#243;n.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Un alumno pide la palabra, el profesor dice &#8220;ya te doy la palabra&#8221;. Pero, antes de hacerlo &lt;i&gt;define el ritmo de la discusi&#243;n,&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;la manera&lt;/i&gt; en que deber&#225; transcurrir, planteando expresamente una forma de &lt;i&gt;organizaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; del debate : &#8220;Como para arrancar con la cosa estar&#237;a bueno encontrar una persona que argumente a favor y una persona que argumente en contra&#8221;. No permite que el alumno que hab&#237;a pedido hablar organice su exposici&#243;n seg&#250;n su propia &lt;i&gt;manera, &lt;/i&gt;y que luego el colectivo vaya buscando su propio ritmo, sino que impone el suyo embret&#225;ndolo con una &#8220;pregunta compleja&#8221; (es decir, que supone la aceptaci&#243;n de lo que acaba de decir en condicional (&#8220;estar&#237;a bueno&#8230;&#8221;) : &#8220;&#191;Quer&#233;s argumentar a favor o en contra ?&#8221;. Ante la respuesta del alumno (&#8220;a favor&#8221;) pregunta &#8220;&#191;qui&#233;n se anima, o quiere, o piensa argumentar en contra ?&#8221; Tras un silencio, t&#237;midamente, una alumna &lt;i&gt;se anima&lt;/i&gt; : &#8220;...Podr&#237;a ser yo,...pero igual no...&#8221;. El profesor dice : &#8220;Bueno, dale, dale...Si nadie m&#225;s... por lo menos para arrancar y despu&#233;s vemos que sucede&#8221;. Alumna : &#8220;Es que no s&#233; qu&#233; decir... Si no aparece nadie m&#225;s&#8230;&#8221;. Profesor : &#8220;Bueno, para empezar y capaz que alguien despu&#233;s cuando vos empieces te ayuda&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Comentario&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Nuestra propuesta buscaba generar energ&#237;a en base a &lt;i&gt;tensiones &lt;/i&gt;poniendo a los estudiantes ante la necesidad de llegar a una decisi&#243;n, mediante una deliberaci&#243;n argumentativa, frente a una cuesti&#243;n de actualidad que se estaba discutiendo en ese momento en el Parlamento. El docente, asumiendo el rol de coordinador del debate, opta por partir de posiciones asumidas previamente al debate, encarnadas en dos estudiantes. Con ello las &lt;i&gt;tensiones&lt;/i&gt; aumentan, pero podr&#237;an esclerosarse las posiciones iniciales en polos inconciliables. Cierto que tambi&#233;n obliga a considerar el punto de visto del otro, lo podr&#237;a dar lugar a la b&#250;squeda de alternativas. Pero dif&#237;cilmente dar&#237;a paso a la colaboraci&#243;n conjunta en reflexi&#243;n y argumentaci&#243;n en uso de la raz&#243;n p&#250;blica tendiente a una toma de decisiones satisfactorias. Porque al abroquelarse desde el inicio en torno a una decisi&#243;n personal ya asumida, los argumentos resultar&#225;n orientados hacia su defensa (no hacia su cr&#237;tica, puesta en duda o admisi&#243;n de la posibilidad de cambio) y los argumentos de la otra parte ser&#225;n tomados en cuenta m&#225;s bien para refutarlos. En vez de enderezar el debate argumentativo hacia la dif&#237;cil resoluci&#243;n racional del conflicto real planteado, la argumentaci&#243;n tender&#225; m&#225;s bien a reducirse a recursos verbales de defensa y ataque de posiciones ya tomadas. La argumentaci&#243;n, entonces, arriesga convertirse en mero instrumento de defensa de juicios previos, cerrados a su examen racional.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El &lt;i&gt;conflicto&lt;/i&gt; espec&#237;ficamente &lt;i&gt;argumentativo&lt;/i&gt; &#191;ser&#225; fuerte ? Todo hace pensar que queda desde el inicio &lt;i&gt;debilitado&lt;/i&gt; (reducido a una especie de &lt;i&gt;juego floral&lt;/i&gt;) desde el momento en que queda desligado del &lt;i&gt;problema real&lt;/i&gt; que lo motiva, de modo que el &lt;i&gt;conflicto&lt;/i&gt; deja de ser real y se reduce a oposici&#243;n de prejuicios (opiniones) y de habilidades de argumentaci&#243;n.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Quiz&#225;s al traducir la propuesta como un &#8220;colectivizar&#8221; lo realizado en las actividades anteriores el profesor haya buscado debilitar la tensi&#243;n sugiriendo un &lt;i&gt;intercambio&lt;/i&gt; que no necesariamente es &#8220;decidir argumentando&#8221;. Pero esta suavizaci&#243;n del conflicto podr&#237;a ir en desmedro de la &#8220;buena calidad&#8221; de la discusi&#243;n (de acuerdo a los criterios de Coser y Simondon) en tanto disimula la gravedad de lo que est&#225; en juego y los posibles &lt;i&gt;conflictos &lt;/i&gt;entre distintas perspectivas que, en el caso planteado, tambi&#233;n se refieren a &lt;i&gt;materialidades&lt;/i&gt; y al &lt;i&gt;cuerpo &lt;/i&gt;propio y ajeno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Parad&#243;jicamente, este tipo de &lt;i&gt;ritmos d&#233;biles &lt;/i&gt;que tienden a negar la presencia de la &lt;i&gt;conflictividad&lt;/i&gt; en la base de las experiencias humanas singulares y colectivas para lograr una convivencia &#8220;pac&#237;fica&#8221; o &#8220;tolerante&#8221;, de alg&#250;n modo hacen f&#250;til el uso de la argumentaci&#243;n racional para posibilitar formas de convivencia individual y colectivamente deseables (aunque siempre provisorias).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Resultar&#225; dif&#237;cil que cada &lt;i&gt;intervenci&#243;n &lt;/i&gt;&#8211; por m&#225;s que pueda ser &lt;i&gt;tolerada&#8211; &lt;/i&gt;pueda ser compartida, comprendida, valorada, y por tanto &lt;i&gt;digna de ser discutida&lt;/i&gt;, y no meramente incomprendida o rechazada por otros. &#191;Resultar&#225;n ritmos favorables a la &lt;i&gt;individuaci&#243;n &lt;/i&gt;(o &lt;i&gt;subjetivaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt;) &lt;i&gt;personal y colectiva&lt;/i&gt; ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El &lt;i&gt;ritmo&lt;/i&gt; elegido se aparta tambi&#233;n de las formalidades parlamentarias habituales, y no toma en cuenta la discusi&#243;n sobre la &lt;i&gt;carga de la argumentaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; (que en este campo cumple una funci&#243;n an&#225;loga a la de la &lt;i&gt;carga de la prueba&lt;/i&gt; en el campo jur&#237;dico).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Con algunos &#8220;quiz&#225;s&#8221; y algunas preguntas, quisimos mantener un tono dubitativo respecto a conclusiones que insinuamos. Con ello queremos abrir algunos problemas de &#237;ndole te&#243;rica y pr&#225;ctica m&#225;s general, que hacen a la argumentaci&#243;n su ense&#241;anza y su aprendizaje y sobre los que volveremos m&#225;s adelante. Por ahora, y en lo que respecta al resto de esta actividad : &#191;En qu&#233; medida influye o no en que sea un debate &lt;i&gt;eur&#237;tmico&lt;/i&gt;, una experiencia vital de acci&#243;n para todos los interlocutores ? &#191;En qu&#233; medida quedan abiertas tensiones y caminos a recorrer ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Desarrollo&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Descripci&#243;n (25-35)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El alumno P6A, que fue interrogado, se manifiesta &#8220;a favor&#8221; de la ley de &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221;. P6 pregunta &#8220;&#191;Qui&#233;n se anima o quiere o piensa argumentar en contra&#8221;. Tras algunos segundos de silencio, una estudiante de origen brasilero (P6C) dice dubitativamente : &#8220;podr&#237;a ser yo...&#8221;, pero teme quedarse sola en esa posici&#243;n. El profesor la anima para que la sostenga y ella acepta. En seguida se dirige a P6A dici&#233;ndole : &#8220;escuchamos tu planteo argumentado&#8221;. Como la respuesta no es inmediata, P6 interviene para subrayar que se plantee la cuesti&#243;n como si &#8220;fu&#233;ramos realmente parlamentarios&#8221;, como si toma de decisi&#243;n tuviera efectos reales.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El alumno reitera lo que puso por escrito : que est&#225; a favor &#8220;porque, a pesar de que a veces los discriminamos y nos re&#237;mos de bromas que hacemos, cada uno puede hacer lo que quiere y elegir lo que quiere, lo que le gusta. Pienso que est&#225; bien, a m&#237; no me molesta&#8221;.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-13&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Esta intervenci&#243;n oral enmarca el problema en ese criterio general y se (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-13&#034;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Comentario&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La libertad de acci&#243;n se afirma, no como &lt;i&gt;principio&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;norma&lt;/i&gt; a discutir, sino como &lt;i&gt;presupuesto&lt;/i&gt; que queda fuera de debate y se erige en &lt;i&gt;criterio&lt;/i&gt; para tomar decisiones. Es decir, se presenta como formando parte del &#8220;fondo com&#250;n de creencias compartidas&#8221; (Piacenza, 1994) por un grupo que no requieren ser justificadas ante &#233;l.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Choca la expresi&#243;n &#8220;porque, a pesar&#8230;&#8221;, que aparece en las versiones escrita y oral. Se dir&#237;a que el alegado derecho a la libertad no implica un juicio condenatorio a cierto &#8220;fondo com&#250;n&#8221; de &lt;i&gt;actitudes&lt;/i&gt; compartidas que la niegan. Esas actitudes que dan al menos &lt;i&gt;minimizadas&lt;/i&gt; o toleradas : se podr&#237;a ejercerlas y al mismo tiempo reconocer verbalmente, como hecho y derecho, la &lt;i&gt;libertad&lt;/i&gt; de cada uno. Tal libertad implicar&#237;a el &lt;i&gt;derecho&lt;/i&gt; a cierto grado de discriminaci&#243;n y no implicar&#237;a el &lt;i&gt;derecho&lt;/i&gt; a no ser discriminado o ridiculizado. El argumento implica cierta &lt;i&gt;incoherencia&lt;/i&gt; de la que el hablante no es consciente.&lt;/p&gt;
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El &#8220;a m&#237; no me molesta&#8221;, que aparece como argumento subsidiario en la versi&#243;n oral, recurre como &lt;i&gt;criterio&lt;/i&gt; decisivo de una legislaci&#243;n &#8220;universal&#8221; a la mera opini&#243;n basada en una sensibilidad personal. Habiendo sensibilidades y opiniones distintas, no ser&#237;a posible legislar sin provocar &#8220;molestias&#8221; a algunos, y no habr&#237;a posibilidad de discusi&#243;n argumentativa racional para tomar de decisiones respecto a una normativa general basada en el criterio de la libertad individual de hacer lo que se quiera o guste.&lt;/p&gt;
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Esta primera intervenci&#243;n incluye un elemento que se reitera, con variantes, en otras : cierta tendencia a tratar como &lt;i&gt;indiscutibles&lt;/i&gt; las diversas opiniones y gustos &lt;i&gt;previos &lt;/i&gt;a cualquier argumentaci&#243;n que, sin embargo, son las que fundan la necesidad o sentido de &#233;sta.&lt;/p&gt;
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Interesa recalcar aqu&#237;, la &lt;i&gt;arritmia&lt;/i&gt; (o cambio de ritmo) que esta intervenci&#243;n introduce en el desarrollo del debate. Le quita el car&#225;cter de &lt;i&gt;seriedad&lt;/i&gt; en que insist&#237;a P6 : &#191;c&#243;mo podr&#237;a discutirse en esos t&#233;rminos &#8220;como si fu&#233;ramos parlamentarios&#8221; y la decisi&#243;n a que lleg&#225;ramos fuera a tener &#8220;efectos reales&#8221; ? El ritmo que queda abierto es el de un &lt;i&gt;juego&lt;/i&gt; sin consecuencias efectivas.&lt;/p&gt;
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Tambi&#233;n roza un problema que tiene relaci&#243;n con la esencia de la &lt;i&gt;argumentaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; : &#191;Se trata de llevar una cuesti&#243;n hasta el &#8220;fondo de creencias compartidas&#8221; por un grupo y detenerse ah&#237; donde se &lt;i&gt;convence&lt;/i&gt; el interlocutor de que lo puesto en discusi&#243;n se acomoda con ese fondo ? Y, por tanto &#191;habr&#237;a que afirmar que no puede haber argumentaci&#243;n racional (sino s&#243;lo &#8220;fuerza bruta&#8221;)&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-14&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Ver lo dicho m&#225;s arriba sobre &#8220;violencia y v&#233;rtigos argumentales&#8221;&#034; id=&#034;nh4-14&#034;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; si no hay o si no se hace manifiesto un fondo compartido de creencias ? &#191;No habr&#237;a, entonces, posibilidad de &lt;i&gt;argumentaci&#243;n filos&#243;fica&lt;/i&gt;, si lo rigurosamente filos&#243;fico exige poner en discusi&#243;n los principios ? (Ranovsky, 2009) O, por el contrario : &#191;Se trata de argumentar siempre, en cualquier contexto, con cualquier interlocutor o auditorio ? &#191;Hay que poner en discusi&#243;n incluso los principios ? &#191;Es necesario argumentar, justamente, ah&#237; donde &lt;i&gt;no &lt;/i&gt;hay un fondo de creencias o de actitudes compartidas ?&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;Descripci&#243;n (36-38)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;P6 glosa la exposici&#243;n del estudiante : &#8220;No te molesta, pens&#225;s que est&#225; bien, que cada uno es libre de hacer lo que quiera o lo que le gusta. A pesar de que reconoces que los discriminamos&#8221;. Inmediatamente pasa a pedir los argumentos &#8220;en contra&#8221; a P6C.&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;Comentario&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El acto de &lt;i&gt;glosar&lt;/i&gt; la exposici&#243;n del estudiante tiene &lt;i&gt;efectos&lt;/i&gt;. En lo que afecta a los &lt;i&gt;ritmos&lt;/i&gt;, incide en que el modo de fluir de la discusi&#243;n se &lt;i&gt;canalice&lt;/i&gt; en el modo propuesto por el docente : la exposici&#243;n argumentalmente fundamentada de opiniones opuestas. Otros actos docentes (como interrogar a los estudiantes si han &lt;i&gt;escuchado&lt;/i&gt; con claridad, si hay &lt;i&gt;entendido&lt;/i&gt; a su compa&#241;ero, si necesitan &lt;i&gt;aclaraciones&lt;/i&gt; de &#233;ste ; o como guardar &lt;i&gt;silencio&lt;/i&gt; a la espera de intervenciones) podr&#237;an haber generado canales menos orientados, m&#225;s exigentes de activa participaci&#243;n estudiantil.&lt;/p&gt;
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Pareciera que la asunci&#243;n por parte del docente de la funci&#243;n de &lt;i&gt;glosar&lt;/i&gt; (o &lt;i&gt;resumir&lt;/i&gt;) supone que alguien no escuch&#243; o no entendi&#243;. Parece suponer tambi&#233;n que el profesor siempre &lt;i&gt;escucha&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;no se distrae&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;comprende&lt;/i&gt;, es capaz de &lt;i&gt;explicarlo que otro dice &lt;/i&gt;en menos palabras, m&#225;s claramente, mejor. La &lt;i&gt;glosa&lt;/i&gt; (o el &lt;i&gt;resumen&lt;/i&gt;) fortalecen el lugar de la autoridad docente, a la vez que desestimula los esfuerzos estudiantiles por mejorar su capacidad de comprensi&#243;n y la calidad de su modo de expresarse.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La glosa &lt;i&gt;interpreta&lt;/i&gt; el discurso, afectando (en este caso muy fuertemente) el contenido de lo expresado. Podr&#237;a decirse que tiende a &lt;i&gt;sustituir&lt;/i&gt; el discurso original, cambi&#225;ndolo por otro &lt;i&gt;distinto&lt;/i&gt; a la vez que m&#225;s sencillo, menos ambiguo, menos necesitado de interpretaciones, menos &lt;i&gt;discutible&lt;/i&gt;. P6 lo hace &lt;i&gt;cambiando el orden&lt;/i&gt; del discurso de P6A : el primer argumento (&#191;el m&#225;s importante ?) pasa a ser el &lt;i&gt;sentimiento personal&lt;/i&gt; ; lo que sea que &lt;i&gt;&#8220;est&#225; bien&#8221;&lt;/i&gt; es conclusi&#243;n de &lt;i&gt;ese&lt;/i&gt; argumento ; la libertad individual de hacer es un dato complementario ; el &#8220;a pesar&#8221; se interpreta como un &#8220;reconocimiento&#8221; autocr&#237;tico de una actitud habitual que quedar&#237;a &lt;i&gt;deslegitimada&lt;/i&gt; por la asunci&#243;n de una posici&#243;n &lt;i&gt;a favor&lt;/i&gt; del &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221;. Con eso reconduce hacia un ritmo que &lt;i&gt;habilita&lt;/i&gt; un debate argumentativo (cosa que, como se&#241;alamos antes, puede ponerse en duda en el discurso del estudiante), pero a costa de&lt;i&gt; debilitar&lt;/i&gt; las tensiones impl&#237;citas en la exposici&#243;n del estudiante, de &lt;i&gt;ahorrar&lt;/i&gt; a los estudiantes el trabajo de expresar su pensamiento y de comprender mejor, como condiciones para el &lt;i&gt;buen ritmo &lt;/i&gt;de una discusi&#243;n.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La &lt;i&gt;interpretaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; del docente no deja lugar a un &lt;i&gt;ritmo&lt;/i&gt; que pase por el trabajo de &lt;i&gt;comprensi&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; de los discursos, inhibe la labor &lt;i&gt;cr&#237;tica&lt;/i&gt; sobre los mismos. Particularmente, no trabaja las &#8220;buenas pr&#225;cticas&#8221; de &lt;i&gt;evaluar argumentos&lt;/i&gt;, ni de &lt;i&gt;argumentar&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Cierra &lt;/i&gt;de entrada la &lt;i&gt;evaluaci&#243;n &lt;/i&gt;de la &lt;i&gt;fuerza&lt;/i&gt; y validezde los argumentos propios y ajenos. La discusi&#243;n se centra en la oposici&#243;n de posturas asumidas y el registro de argumentos,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-15&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;En nuestra propuesta de actividad n&#186; 2, s&#243;lo pedimos identificar las (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-15&#034;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; de modo que podr&#237;a entenderse que lo &lt;i&gt;importante&lt;/i&gt; est&#225; en los &lt;i&gt;contenidos&lt;/i&gt; de dichas posturas, y no en el &lt;i&gt;proceso de discusi&#243;n argumentativa&lt;/i&gt; que lleve a tomas de posici&#243;n de &#237;ndole racional en problemas que ata&#241;en a la comunidad y no admiten soluciones simplistas. Se arriesga as&#237; a la mera acumulaci&#243;n de argumentos que no se sopesan o valoran ; a que no se ense&#241;e ni se aprenda a argumentar.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Descripci&#243;n (40-68)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;P6C da sus argumentos por la posici&#243;n en contra. Utiliza argumentos distintos en la parte escrita y en la oral. Habla de modo r&#225;pido que no se entiende bien.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-16&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;No se oyen bien ninguna de las 2 grabaciones. Incide en esto : su manejo a&#250;n (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-16&#034;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; Quiz&#225;s el argumento se oriente hacia considerar que la protecci&#243;n legal de las uniones homosexuales producir&#237;a efectos negativos sobre la familia y la generaci&#243;n de hijos.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-17&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;La versi&#243;n escrita incluye la formaci&#243;n de los hijos adoptivos y la (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-17&#034;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; El profesor la interrumpe : &#8220;A ver si te entend&#237;&#8221;. La joven contin&#250;a hablando y tambi&#233;n otros voces, pero el profesor predomina : &#8220;A ver si entendieron lo que dijo&#8221; y comienza a glosarla : que si se legalizara el matrimonio gay, tal vez muchos &#8220;se animan&#8221;... Ella lo interrumpe, y P6 dice : &#8220;&#191;A vos te parece que, en realidad, porque la ley no lo permite los gay no conviven ?&#8221; La alumna dice que s&#237; y que conoce gente que &#8220;quisiera ser pero que tiene miedo&#8221; y &#8220;gente que ya fue pero ahora ya est&#225; casada&#8221; (con alguien del otro sexo). P6 superpone su voz con tono p&#237;caro : &#8220;&#161;Pero volvi&#243; !&#8221; ; P6C &#8220;ya est&#225; casada y tiene hijos y&#8230;&#8221; P6 &#8220;De aquel pasado oscuro&#8230;&#8221; P6C &#8220;&#161;No es como una obligaci&#243;n, no es una obligaci&#243;n !&#8221;. P6 &#8220;&#191;Qu&#233; piensan de lo que dice P6C ? Hay una cosa que parece clara... Si lo permiten se va a llenar de matrimonios homosexuales. &#191;Qu&#233; piensan de eso ?&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Comentario&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La posibilidad de &lt;i&gt;euritmia&lt;/i&gt; se desmorona. El profesor, que permiti&#243; la exposici&#243;n, parcialmente cambiada por su interpretaci&#243;n, de la argumentaci&#243;n por una posici&#243;n, ahora no permite el desarrollo completo de la argumentaci&#243;n contraria : la interrumpe dos veces para interpretarla algo burlonamente, cuando ella no lo acepta (o, simplemente, sigue con su exposici&#243;n). La agrede con una pregunta que (&#191;conscientemente ?) la malinterpreta. Cuando ella responde con ejemplos la ridiculiza dos veces. Cuando ella lo &#8220;desmiente&#8221;, pide la opini&#243;n de los dem&#225;s induciendo claramente a que la respuesta sea rechazar el argumento (en la versi&#243;n dada por el docente) y, con &#233;l, la posici&#243;n sostenida.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El &lt;i&gt;ritmo &lt;/i&gt;que ven&#237;a planteado el docente al comienzo, de presentar dos posiciones y escuchar sus argumentos sin valorarlos, cambia. La &lt;i&gt;carga de la argumentaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; cae ahora sobre la segunda opini&#243;n, que s&#237; es discutida. El docente toma posici&#243;n por el contenido de una de las partes, de modo que del descuido de lo argumentativo en ambos casos se pasa a una contra argumentaci&#243;n falaciosa que propone, pide y genera una &lt;i&gt;atracci&#243;n irresistible&lt;/i&gt;, un ritmo de &lt;i&gt;v&#233;rtigo argumentativo&lt;/i&gt;&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Descripci&#243;n/comentario (70-190) &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;A partir de este momento se pierde la referencia al tema en discusi&#243;n y el debate gira sobre la expresi&#243;n de opiniones en torno a argumentos relativos a determinados efectos que tendr&#237;a la aprobaci&#243;n de la ley.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Del punto de vista r&#237;tmico, inducida por la pregunta del docente que cierra el movimiento anterior, se abre un nuevo evento con intervenciones superpuestas, que se articula en torno a la pregunta de un alumno sobre &#8220;c&#243;mo vivir&#225;n&#8221; los hijos adoptados por matrimonios del mismo sexo, dos padres, dos madres.&lt;/p&gt;
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El asunto no tiene relaci&#243;n con el debate sobre la reforma de los art&#237;culos del c&#243;digo civil referentes al matrimonio : el r&#233;gimen legal uruguayo no exige el matrimonio como condici&#243;n de adopci&#243;n y reconoce la uni&#243;n concubinaria entre personas del mismo sexo. Esta inatinencia pasa inadvertida : de modo que el debate fluye en el seno de un &lt;i&gt;v&#233;rtigo argumentativo&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Un estudiante se pronuncia valorando globalmente el asunto de los hijos de matrimonios homosexuales : &#8220;eso est&#225; mal&#8221;. Lo que provoca la aparici&#243;n de &#8220;pseudo-argumentos&#8221; en forma de chistes maliciosos (discriminatorios) que a su vez generan risas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El profesor se esfuerza por reordenar el debate pidiendo el &lt;i&gt;fundamento&lt;/i&gt; de esa valoraci&#243;n. Ante la debilidad del mismo (que hay &#8220;&lt;i&gt;derecho&lt;/i&gt; a tener una madre&#8221;) intenta que los estudiantes problematicen la distinci&#243;n entre &lt;i&gt;hechos&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;derechos&lt;/i&gt; y se centren en las &lt;i&gt;diferencias&lt;/i&gt; que introducir&#237;a en eso la aprobaci&#243;n del matrimonio igualitario. Pero, pese a ello, la discusi&#243;n sigue transitando en torno a presuntas ventajas e inconvenientes &#8211;econ&#243;micos, afectivos, educativos&#8211; de la adopci&#243;n o fecundaci&#243;n asistida por parejas homosexuales.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Y se sostiene dificultosamente entre conversaciones laterales, irrupciones de comentarios jocosos, intervenciones superpuestas, pedidos de palabra que no son atendidos. Todos &lt;i&gt;acontecimientos&lt;/i&gt; que, generados &lt;i&gt;sincr&#243;nicamente&lt;/i&gt; por el evento central, lo afectan &lt;i&gt;diacr&#243;nicamente&lt;/i&gt;, seg&#250;n sus propios ritmos que &#8211;al menos en el caso de los chistes&#8211; &lt;i&gt;sostienen y ordenan&lt;/i&gt; su propio movimiento&lt;i&gt; desordenando&lt;/i&gt; el debate, impulsando su &lt;i&gt;ritmo vertiginoso&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En el centro del debate hay lugar para la aceptaci&#243;n acr&#237;tica de prejuicios &lt;i&gt;como si &lt;/i&gt;fueran argumentos. En efecto, presentados con &lt;i&gt;humor&lt;/i&gt;, como juego, sin pretensi&#243;n de &#8220;seriedad&#8221;, los prejuicios logran pasar sin filtro cr&#237;tico alguno y resultan de hecho &#8220;legitimados&#8221; como intervenciones &lt;i&gt;aceptables&lt;/i&gt;. No lo son de acuerdo a nuestro criterio de an&#225;lisis porque no promueven la constituci&#243;n de &lt;i&gt;individuaciones singulares&lt;/i&gt; (dan por supuesta la validez, para el grupo en su conjunto, de actitudes y opiniones prejuiciosas asumidas y presentadas &lt;i&gt;como si fueran&lt;/i&gt; gustos asumidos personalmente) ni de &lt;i&gt;individuaciones colectivas&lt;/i&gt;, pues no procuran ser &lt;i&gt;discutidos&lt;/i&gt; sino cancelar la discusi&#243;n (puesto que esos prejuicios integran el &lt;i&gt;fondo compartido&lt;/i&gt; de opiniones y actitudes que no se cuestionan). Si conducen a formas de &lt;i&gt;individuaciones colectivas&lt;/i&gt;, &#233;stas ser&#225;n esclerosadas en sus prejuicios, que &lt;i&gt;inhiben&lt;/i&gt; (por el &lt;i&gt;miedo&lt;/i&gt; al rid&#237;culo, a la exclusi&#243;n del grupo) las &lt;i&gt;individuaciones singulares&lt;/i&gt;, sean &#233;stas cr&#237;ticas, creativas o expresiones de creencias o prejuicios diferentes. El &lt;i&gt;fondo&lt;/i&gt; de creencias y actitudes compartidas, pasa al &lt;i&gt;frente&lt;/i&gt;, y compromete o traba la posibilidad de una &lt;i&gt;euritmia argumentativa&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El docente reitera esfuerzos &#8211;que pasan principalmente por intentar precisar alg&#250;n concepto, profundizar alg&#250;n aspecto, imponer silencio&#8211; que no tienen &#233;xito.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Tratando de volver al tema pregunta si alguien apoya la posici&#243;n en contra del proyecto de ley sustentada por C, con la cual dice identificarse : &#8220;&#191;Yo y C estamos en contra nom&#225;s ? O &#191;no se animan a decir ?&#8221; Hay un de silencio. Entonces acude a otro recurso : interroga directamente a una alumna : &#8220;Vos que daste medio dudosa &#191;s&#237; ? &#191;a ver ?&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La estudiante dice no estar ni a favor ni en contra, porque no le molestar&#237;a personalmente la ley, pero no le gusta, le da asco, ver parejas del mismo sexo. Es otra versi&#243;n del primer argumento &#8220;a favor&#8221;, pero aqu&#237; no tiene el sentido de defender una toma de posici&#243;n preasumida, sino que &#233;sta que da pospuesta por la tensi&#243;n entre distintos &#8220;gustos&#8221; y las distintas &#8220;molestias&#8221; que puede provocar en otros el libre ejercicio de la libertad individual de algunos. Se abren caminos : para el trabajo conceptual, para la duda, para la consideraci&#243;n de una tercera alternativa que podr&#237;a mediar en la dualidad &#8220;a favor&#8221; / &#8220;en contra&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pero la oportunidad pasa desapercibida en la continuaci&#243;n del discurso de la alumna que, queriendo &#8220;ejemplificar&#8221;, vuelve a la tem&#225;tica de los eventuales efectos de la ley, mencionando el caso de los hijos de un travesti casada (de Argentina) : &#8220;la van a odiar&#8221; en el futuro. Interrumpen superposiciones, chistes y risas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El profesor se suma con un comentario ir&#243;nico : &#8220;Es decir : &#161;son casi seres humanos, a pesar de que son gay !&#8221;. Un alumno interviene pidiendo su opini&#243;n al profesor ; otro, interpret&#225;ndola &#8220;en contra&#8221; para incitarlo a pronunciarse. La insistencia en ese pedido se reitera varias veces durante la sesi&#243;n,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-18&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Algunos autores resaltan la importancia de este tipo de preguntas por parte (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-18&#034;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; lo que opera como otro factor de distorsi&#243;n, que no afecta m&#225;s all&#225; de eso el desarrollo de la sesi&#243;n porque el docente no accede al pedido.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;An&#225;lisis del punto de vista de los conceptos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En t&#233;rminos generales las palabras y conceptos no son trabajados en el debate en el aula coordinado por el profesor P6. Ni los estudiantes se preocupan de aclarar o delimitar los t&#233;rminos que usan, ni el profesor pide o da suficientes aclaraciones. Es posible que puedan encontrarse algunas excepciones, pero la t&#243;nica es &#233;sa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; Nos detendremos en el planteo de la cuesti&#243;n en debate y seguiremos el tratamiento que se da en ella a los conceptos centrales en juego : &lt;i&gt;ley, matrimonio&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;casamiento&lt;/i&gt;), proyecto de ley de &lt;i&gt;matrimonio igualitario&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;entre homosexuales, gay, etc.)&lt;/i&gt; y los seguiremos en sus relaciones con otros conceptos a trav&#233;s del desarrollo del debate (entre par&#233;ntesis indicamos los renglones de referencia en la desgrabaci&#243;n).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P6 introduce el t&#233;rmino &#8220;parlamento&#8221; con una &#8220;definici&#243;n&#8221; jocosa (3-4) que sugiere que no vale la pena detenerse en &#8220;cuestiones de palabras&#8221; que todos conocen y que puede usarse para generar un ambiente simp&#225;tico. Al mismo tiempo, legitima un manejo terminol&#243;gico y conceptual superficial que har&#225; dif&#237;cil, incluso, comprender plenamente el alcance mismo del debate. Obligar&#225; a otra intervenci&#243;n docente (26-30) para indicar que el parlamento toma &#8220;decisiones&#8221; que tienen efectos y que se espera de los estudiantes que asuman ese rol en el debate.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El concepto de &lt;i&gt;matrimonio igualitario&lt;/i&gt; no se precisa (pero hab&#237;a sido usado en las dos actividades anteriores), ni tampoco los conceptos &lt;i&gt;ley&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;proyecto de ley&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La intervenci&#243;n &#8220;a favor&#8221; del primer estudiante (32-38) pone de manifiesto que no entendi&#243; el problema de que se trata (se refiere a discriminaci&#243;n de homosexuales, libertad de elecci&#243;n y si molesta o no a quien opina). El profesor, glosa su exposici&#243;n sin ninguna precisi&#243;n conceptual.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La intervenci&#243;n de la estudiante &#8220;en contra&#8221; (41-49) s&#237; toma en cuenta que se trata de una cuesti&#243;n legal, que vincula a la &#8220;protecci&#243;n&#8221; de las personas, que en este caso generar&#237;a problemas a la &#8220;familia&#8221; &#8211;entendida con finalidad de &#8220;procreaci&#243;n&#8221;&#8211;. En la discusi&#243;n posterior tampoco se precisan esos conceptos y se confunde &#8220;matrimonio&#8221; con &#8220;formar una pareja gay&#8221;, lo que lleva a especular sobre qu&#233; har&#237;an los gay si se aprobara la ley y c&#243;mo vivir&#237;an los ni&#241;os que adoptaran.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Bastante m&#225;s adelante (267-268) la misma alumna retoma su preocupaci&#243;n central en otra forma : &#8220;para m&#237; que si el hombre fue hecho para estar con una mujer&#8230;&#8221; Lejos de marcar la diferencia de esta conceptuaci&#243;n con la sostenida al principio (ya no se trata de la procreaci&#243;n como finalidad de la familia, sino de la finalidad de los sexos) y someterla a cr&#237;tica, P6 vuelve a intervenir fuertemente en el debate con &#8220;&#191;Qui&#233;n dice que el hombre fue hecho para estar con la mujer ?&#8221; (obviando el &#8220;para m&#237;&#8221; de la estudiante) repitiendo cinco veces &#8220;&#191;Qui&#233;n dice ?&#8221; e introduciendo interrogativamente : &#8220;&#191;la Biblia ?&#8221;, la estudiante contesta &#8220;la ley, van contra la propia ley, porque al principio pusieron una ley que el matrimonio era solamente la uni&#243;n de var&#243;n y mujer, y ahora la van a deshacer esa ley ?&#8221; (286).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&#8220;&#191;La van a deshacer o la van a ca&#8230; ampliar ?&#8221; Ante la insistencia de la alumna de que van &#8220;contra de la propia ley&#8221;, P6 aclara que &#8220;deshacer implicar&#237;a que los hombres y las mujeres no se pudieran seguir casando&#8221; (291-292) ; &#8220;La van a modificar&#8221;, dice un alumno (294). &#8220;La van a ampliar, no la van a deshacer. No es lo mismo&#8221; dice P6 (295). Son los primeros esbozos de trabajar conceptos b&#225;sicos que est&#225;n en debate.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La alumna reconoce esto. Quiere decir algo m&#225;s, el profesor la anima a que lo haga, pero ella se corta : &#8220;No&#8230; no&#8230; No voy a hablar, si no&#8230; &#161;me van a matar !&#8221; (298). El profesor vuelve a animarla, pero ella se niega. &#191;Es que la precisi&#243;n conceptual se vive en el mismo plano que las agresiones anteriores ? Quiz&#225;s el &lt;i&gt;ambiente&lt;/i&gt; o los &lt;i&gt;ritmos &lt;/i&gt;generados dif&#237;cilmente puedan dar espacio a un debate argumentativo en el aula ; y m&#225;s dif&#237;cilmente a&#250;n a an&#225;lisis conceptuales por m&#225;s elementales que sean.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Mucho m&#225;s adelante (486-487) la misma alumna, presenta una variaci&#243;n de su argumento :&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-19&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;El mismo argumento estaba planteado por uno de los textos de la actividad 2.&#034; id=&#034;nh4-19&#034;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; &#8220;La ley dice que matrimonio es la uni&#243;n entre hombre y mujer, y no podemos llamar matrimonio si se casan dos hombres. Si la ley dice&#8230;&#8221; El argumento se refiere ahora s&#243;lo al &lt;i&gt;nombre&lt;/i&gt; de la instituci&#243;n, pero cae en el mismo defecto que le fuera criticado antes : que la &lt;i&gt;ley&lt;/i&gt; es considerada como una fuente de autoridad inmodificable.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-20&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;El proyecto de ley, posteriormente aprobado, lo que hace es establecer (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-20&#034;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; En esta oportunidad el docente vuelve a intervenir, pero no para referirse a ese aspecto sino para &#8220;argumentar&#8221; por analog&#237;a : &#8220;&#161;Shhh ! En alg&#250;n momento la ley dec&#237;a que las mujeres no pod&#237;an estudiar y sin embargo, en alg&#250;n momento destrozamos esa ley y les permitimos a las mujeres estudiar : &#191;Estuvo mal ?&#8221; En relaci&#243;n al trabajo conceptual, el uso del t&#233;rmino &#8220;destrozar&#8221; parece contradecir el trabajo de aclaraci&#243;n realizado anteriormente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Puede verse que la &lt;i&gt;negligencia&lt;/i&gt; respeto a &#8220;la primera operaci&#243;n de la inteligencia&#8221; en lo que tiene que ver con lo que est&#225; en discusi&#243;n, afecta sustantivamente la calidad del proceso argumentativo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; Nos referiremos ahora a conceptos que juegan un rol importante en el debate argumentativo y que son manejados por varios actores reiteradamente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Vamos a considerar los siguientes : &lt;i&gt;discriminar, gustar, no molestar, hacer/elegir lo que quiere&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;estar bien&lt;/i&gt;. Aparecen en relaci&#243;n en el discurso argumentativo desde la primera intervenci&#243;n de un estudiante &#8220;a favor&#8221; del proyecto de ley (P6A) : &#8220;Yo estoy a favor porque a pesar de que a veces los &lt;i&gt;discriminamos&lt;/i&gt; cuando los vemos, y hacemos &lt;i&gt;bromas&lt;/i&gt; sobre ellos, y nos &lt;i&gt;re&#237;mos&lt;/i&gt; de ellos, pienso que cada uno puede hacer lo que quiere, lo que le gusta... Pienso que &lt;i&gt;est&#225;bien&lt;/i&gt;, a m&#237;&lt;i&gt; no me molesta&lt;/i&gt;.&#8221; (32-35)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Hay en esto varias ambig&#252;edades, la mayor&#237;a de las cuales se dan a nivel &lt;i&gt;enunciativo&lt;/i&gt;, pero tambi&#233;n a nivel &lt;i&gt;argumentativo&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;conceptual&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
A nivel &lt;i&gt;enunciativo&lt;/i&gt;, porque en las tres enunciaciones iniciales el predicado se omite (aunque, sin duda, son &#8220;los homosexuales&#8221;) y sujeto no est&#225; definido (adem&#225;s del hablante &#191;qui&#233;nes &#8220;&lt;i&gt;discriminamos&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;hacemos bromas&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;nosre&#237;mos&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; ?, &#191;todos ?, &#191;los heterosexuales ?, &#191;los varones ?).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En las dos &#250;ltimas oraciones, lo indefinido es m&#225;s bien su funci&#243;n : &#191;son argumentos secundarios ? &#191;son conclusi&#243;n ? &#191;qu&#233; relaci&#243;n hay entre ambas y con el argumento ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
A nivel &lt;i&gt;argumentativo&lt;/i&gt; no est&#225; clara la ilaci&#243;n de los argumentos con la conclusi&#243;n (estar a favor de la ley).&#191;Qu&#233; tiene que ver el &#8220;poder hacer&#8221; de cada uno con el proyecto de ley que se discute ? &#191;Qu&#233; rol juega el hecho de la discriminaci&#243;n ? &#191;Qu&#233; rol juega que algo &#8220;no me moleste&#8221; ?, &#191;es un argumento ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
A nivel terminol&#243;gico y conceptual. &#8220;A pesar de que&#8221; : &#191;indica &lt;i&gt;reconocimiento&lt;/i&gt; de un defecto ?, &#191;expresa una culpa ?, &#191;quiere &lt;i&gt;confesarla, excusarla&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;minimizarla&lt;/i&gt; ? &#191;procura&lt;i&gt;compensar&lt;/i&gt; algo (discrimino a los homosexuales, pero apoyo una ley que los favorece) ? &#8220;&lt;i&gt;Puede&lt;/i&gt; hacer&#8221; : &#191;es un poder de hecho o de derecho ? Si es lo segundo &#191;qu&#233; l&#237;mites tiene ? &#191;en qu&#233; se funda ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Discriminar&lt;/i&gt;, es una palabra habitual, usada en el sentido de &#8220;Dar trato de inferioridad a una persona o colectividad por motivos raciales, religiosos, pol&#237;ticos, etc.&#8221;. Designa una acci&#243;n actualmente cargada de connotaciones negativas. &lt;i&gt;Poder hacer lo que se quiere&#8230; Lo que gusta&#8230; Lo que no me molesta&lt;/i&gt; :&#191;En qu&#233; sentido ? &lt;i&gt;Est&#225; bien&lt;/i&gt; &#191;en qu&#233; sentido ? &#191;por qu&#233; ? &#191;C&#243;mo se trabajan estos conceptos en el proceso argumentativo ? &#191;Qu&#233; rol juegan en &#233;l ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Las imprecisiones se&#241;aladas posiblemente tengan que ver con caracter&#237;sticas generales &#8211;no s&#243;lo ling&#252;&#237;sticas&#8211; de una forma de comunicaci&#243;n de uso habitual entre los j&#243;venes cuya intelecci&#243;n depende del contexto y &#8211;principalmente&#8211; del grupo en el cual se da (a veces como jerga y cumpliendo funciones de definici&#243;n, integraci&#243;n y delimitaci&#243;n del grupo, excluyendo de su comprensi&#243;n a otros). Su manejo p&#250;blico en el aula, en este caso, tiene una funci&#243;n positiva en la medida en que incluye a diversos subgrupos, al docente y a otros oyentes. Pone de manifiesto que, en poco tiempo, se ha logrado un ambiente de confianza e identificaci&#243;n, propicio para el trabajo colectivo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pero las ambig&#252;edades se&#241;aladas interfieren fuertemente en la comprensi&#243;n de los participantes y, concretamente, en el inmediato resumen aclarativo, pero en realidad interpretativo, que hace el docente (36-37) : &#8220;No te molesta, pens&#225;s que est&#225; bien, que cada uno es libre de hacer lo que quiera o lo que le gusta. A pesar de que reconoces que los discriminamos. Bien&#8230;&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El cambio del orden enunciativo &lt;i&gt;interpreta&lt;/i&gt;. Eliminando algunas ambig&#252;edades (lo que incide en el nivel &lt;i&gt;argumentativo&lt;/i&gt;). Pero aqu&#237; nos interesa destacar el juego de los t&#233;rminos y conceptos en este cambio. La desaparici&#243;n del &#8220;porque&#8221; inicial del estudiante puede reducir la ilaci&#243;n argumentativa. Ser&#237;a una suma de opiniones aisladas, cuyo peso relativo no es el mismo que el del original, particularmente en el caso del &#8220;&lt;i&gt;No te molesta&lt;/i&gt;&#8221; que, aqu&#237;, aparece como argumento b&#225;sico. La funci&#243;n del &#8220;a pesar&#8221; se ubica en un lugar donde cambia su sentido. El &lt;i&gt;poder hacer y elegir&lt;/i&gt; queda nombrado como &lt;i&gt;libertad de hacer&lt;/i&gt;. La referencia a la discriminaci&#243;n, queda nombrada como un &lt;i&gt;reconocimiento&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
La forma de &lt;i&gt;aclaraci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; elegida, que no pasa por clarificar lo que el estudiante quiso decir, sino por interpretarlo y dar por confirmada r&#225;pidamente la exactitud de esa interpretaci&#243;n, incide en que los conceptos (y los enunciados) no sean puestos en tela de juicio pero que, en su indefinici&#243;n, sigan jugando un rol importante en el debate. Es decir : permanecen como elementos de fondo considerados indiscutibles acr&#237;ticamente. As&#237; los preconceptos y prejuicios m&#225;s usuales (&#191;lo &#8220;pol&#237;ticamente correcto&#8221; ?) operan como criterios definitivos (en esta discusi&#243;n, frente a otros conjuntos de preconceptos y prejuicios que se viven como incompatibles e inferiores &lt;i&gt;desde&lt;/i&gt; los propios preconceptos y prejuicios) y traban la argumentaci&#243;n y el libre desarrollo del debate. Por otra parte, es dable sospechar que no todos tienen tan &#8220;internalizados&#8221; esos prejuicios o no ven la tensi&#243;n entre apoyar la ley y tolerar o excusar la &#8220;discriminaci&#243;n&#8221;, y no encuentran espacios para expresar sus dudas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El criterio de lo que&lt;i&gt; no me gusta&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;me molesta &lt;/i&gt;aparece m&#225;s adelante reivindicando no ya el derecho a que cada uno haga lo que le guste, sino el derecho a &lt;i&gt;discriminar&lt;/i&gt; si otro hace algo que me desagrada : no me gusta ver actos homosexuales ; si los ves, los &#8220;jod&#233;s&#8221; (321-323). P6A afirma hacer lo mismo, pero reitera que &lt;i&gt;no me molesta &lt;/i&gt;(324) ante lo cual una estudiante acusa : sos un &lt;i&gt;discriminador&lt;/i&gt; (325). Otro alumno : &#8220;Todo el mundo discrimina. &#161;Sin querer a veces discrimin&#225;s !&#8221; P6 advierte parcialmente el problema y dice : &#8220;por un lado decimos &lt;i&gt;nos me molesta&lt;/i&gt;, pero por otro los jorobo&#8221; (328-329). Pero dado el ritmo del debate, la intervenci&#243;n no logra el efecto de reconducirlo a caminos racionales o argumentales, sino que siguen bromas, risas, malas palabras&#8230; Algunos pasan a describir, valorar y defender las (a veces opuestas) actitudes que toman ante los homosexuales (340-360). M&#225;s adelante (461) reaparecer&#225; la cuesti&#243;n de la &lt;i&gt;discriminaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; en el mismo sentido de explicar actitudes frente a los homosexuales (en general personales) en diversas circunstancias cotidianas, de parentesco o de amistad. P6 acompa&#241;a esa deriva&#8230; Que pronto cae en si &#8220;me molesta&#8221; cuando se trata de varones, pero no si se trata de mujeres&#8230; y del &lt;i&gt;gusto&lt;/i&gt; de pasa a la excitaci&#243;n sexual y al asco (494-546). Pocos alumnos (de sexo femenino) sostienen no &lt;i&gt;discriminar&lt;/i&gt; ; reiteradamente lo hace aquella que no acuerda con la ley (608).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Hasta el final del debate (en la ronda de opiniones que realiza el profesor) se reitera sin cambios el cuadro conceptual (o el uso de t&#233;rminos vac&#237;os) tal como se plante&#243; al principio, y las oposiciones simplemente se yuxtaponen : &#8220;Cada uno puede hacer lo que quiera. Depende de sus gustos. No me molesta&#8221; (615). &#8220;Tampoco me molesta ; no me molesta&#8221; (620). &#8220;Lo &#250;nico diferente son los gustos. Todos tenemos derecho a lo mismo&#8221; (624). P 6 se limita a constatarlo : &#8220;casi todos nos centramos desde lo que nos gusta&#8221; (650). Y siguen&#8230; Sobre el final aparece : &#8220;No me importa. No s&#233;&#8221; (673) &#8220;Yo qu&#233; s&#233;, a m&#237; me da lo mismo&#8221; (691).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En suma : casi no hay trabajo sobre conceptos. Rara vez se los analiza o explica : en general se los da por sabidos, sin definirlos, ni distinguirlos, lo que produce confusiones, particularmente en lo que se refiere a los &lt;i&gt;gustos&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;no molestar&lt;/i&gt;, que llegan a contraponerse sin que, en general, se lo advierta. El concepto de &lt;i&gt;discriminaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; no permite siquiera distinguir lo que &lt;i&gt;est&#225; bien&lt;/i&gt; de lo que &lt;i&gt;est&#225; mal&lt;/i&gt; y mucho menos las contradicciones internas de muchos discursos&#8230; y pr&#225;cticas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Otro aspecto a tener en cuenta es que, en este caso, los conceptos que son objeto de la espec&#237;fica discusi&#243;n quedan dejados de lado. As&#237; el concepto de &lt;i&gt;matrimonio&lt;/i&gt; no es elaborado, salvo en la versi&#243;n que lo vincula a la &lt;i&gt;procreaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; y a la &lt;i&gt;familia&lt;/i&gt;, ligada a determinada concepci&#243;n de &#233;stas, de los seres humanos y de los sexos, que no es compartida por la gran mayor&#237;a, pero sin que se den razones. No aparece el concepto de &lt;i&gt;matrimonio civil&lt;/i&gt; (cuya definici&#243;n, justamente, es lo que cambia el proyecto de ley) y su relaci&#243;n con otros, como el de &lt;i&gt;uni&#243;n concubinaria&lt;/i&gt; ; y los m&#250;ltiples aspectos que afecta : econ&#243;micos, sociales, pol&#237;ticos, &#233;ticos. Todo lo relativo a la &lt;i&gt;ley&lt;/i&gt;(particularmente en lo referente a su &lt;i&gt;cambio&lt;/i&gt;) aparece planteado muy endeblemente, as&#237; como el concepto de &lt;i&gt;derecho&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
El debate &lt;i&gt;se estanca&lt;/i&gt; definitivamente en posiciones aisladas que no parece que, en general, se puedan relacionar con otras de modo dialogal. Las indiferencias finales parecen ser producto de un aburrimiento que tambi&#233;n proviene de no sentirse involucrados en la cuesti&#243;n y de que, quienes se comprometen en el debate (salvo pocas excepciones que no logran mayor receptividad) no lo hacen con el fin de aportar a la soluci&#243;n de un problema colectivo real, sino como modo de defender, excusar o ensalzar sus propios prejuicios y actitudes individuales.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;A modo de proyecciones futuras&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;No desarrollamos aqu&#237; el an&#225;lisis referido a los &#8220;v&#233;rtigos argumentativos&#8221;. Merece un estudio detallado a partir de la hip&#243;tesis general de que el desarrollo de la presente sesi&#243;n es particularmente &lt;i&gt;vertiginosa&lt;/i&gt; y es posible detectar &lt;i&gt;v&#233;rtigos espec&#237;ficos&lt;/i&gt;, no desligados de los problemas &lt;i&gt;conceptuales&lt;/i&gt;, que pueden incidir en &lt;i&gt;cambios de ritmos&lt;/i&gt; (quiz&#225;s hacia &#8220;ritmos vertiginosos&#8221;, m&#225;s que hacia &#8220;euritmias virtuosas&#8221;). De modo que ser&#237;a importante &#8220;cruzar&#8221; las tres perspectivas de an&#225;lisis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ser&#225; entonces el momento de extraer de aqu&#237; elementos para analizar y comparar esto con las perspectivas y criterios de an&#225;lisis que no hemos considerado en este trabajo, con la misma actividad realizada en los otros cinco grupos de estudiantes, con el an&#225;lisis de la actividad de &#8220;cierre&#8221;,&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-21&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Dicha actividad se organiz&#243; utilizando como disparador un episodio (3.3) de (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-21&#034;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt; y con &lt;i&gt;clases&lt;/i&gt; observadas en filosof&#237;a y en biolog&#237;a.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb4-22&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;Observamos la clase inicial de filosof&#237;a de los seis grupos de alumnos (&#8230;)&#034; id=&#034;nh4-22&#034;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_4&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Anexos&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;El resto del art&#237;culo &lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1315' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;aqu&#237;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_5&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;Bibliograf&#237;a mencionada&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Cooper, Grosvenor y Meyer, Leonard B., &lt;i&gt;The Rythmic Structure of Music&lt;/i&gt;. London, University of Chicago, 1960.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Harada O., E. (2010) : &#8220;Carlos Pereda y la cultura argumental&#8221;. M&#233;xico, &lt;i&gt;Andamios&lt;/i&gt;,&lt;i&gt; Revista de investigaci&#243;n social&lt;/i&gt;, vol. VII, n&#186; 14, 225-262, 2010.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Langer, Susanne K., &lt;i&gt;Sentimiento y Forma&lt;/i&gt;, (1953), M&#233;xico DF, UNAM, 1967.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Michon, Pascal, (a) &lt;i&gt;M&#233;moire de synth&#232;se pour l'HDR&lt;/i&gt; (2009) (versi&#243;n digital, gentileza del autor)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Michon, Pascal, (b) &lt;i&gt;Les rythmes du politique ; d&#233;mocratie et capitalisme mondialis&#233;&lt;/i&gt;. Paris, Les Prairies Ordinaires, 2007.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Michon, Pascal, (c) &lt;i&gt;Deux figures du rythme chez Diderot : l'hi&#233;roglyphe et la mani&#232;re. &lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article849&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article849&lt;/a&gt;, 2013.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Pereda, C. (1994) : &lt;i&gt;V&#233;rtigos argumentales&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Una &#233;tica de la disputa&lt;/i&gt;. Barcelona, Anthropos, 1994.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Piacenza, Eduardo : &#8220;El ars disputandi de un manuscrito caraque&#241;o del Siglo XVIII&#8221;, en Guti&#233;rrez, Carlos B (ed.), &lt;i&gt;El trabajo filos&#243;fico de hoy en el continente&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Actas del XIII Congreso Interamericano de Filosof&#237;a&lt;/i&gt;, Bogot&#225;, julio 4 al 9 de 1994. (Bogot&#225;, Sociedad Interamericana de Filosof&#237;a-Sociedad Colombiana de Filosof&#237;a, 1995).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Piacenza, Eduardo : &#8220;La teor&#237;a de la argumentaci&#243;n de Perelman y los problemas de la carga de la prueba&#8221;. &lt;i&gt;Revista Venezolana de Filosof&#237;a&lt;/i&gt; 38, Caracas, 1998.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Ranovsky, Alejandro 2009. &#8220;La definici&#243;n de un criterio de rigor propio de la filosof&#237;a como requisito para su ense&#241;anza&#8221;. En Cerletti, Alejandro &lt;i&gt;La ense&#241;anza de la filosof&#237;a en perspectiva&lt;/i&gt;. Buenos Aires : EUDEBA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Thibaudeau, V&#237;ctor (2006) : &lt;i&gt;Principes de logique : d&#233;finition, &#233;nonciation, raisonnement&lt;/i&gt;. Laval, PUL, 2006. V.t. &#8220;L'&#233;tude de la premi&#232;re op&#233;ration de l'intelligence au c&#339;ur de la formation intellectuelle au niveau pr&#233;-universitaire&#8221; en Ribeiro, H. y Vicente, J. : &lt;i&gt;O lugar da l&#243;gica e da argumenta&#231;ao no ensino da filosofia&lt;/i&gt;. Coimbra, Faculdade de Letras-FCT, 2010.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Vicente, Joaquim Neves : &#8220;Do primado de una &lt;i&gt;l&#243;gica utens&lt;/i&gt; sobre una &lt;i&gt;l&#243;gica docens&lt;/i&gt;no ensino da filosofia na educa&#231;ao secund&#226;ria&#8221;, en Ribeiro, H. y Vicente, J. : &lt;i&gt;O lugar da l&#243;gica e da argumenta&#231;ao no ensino da filosofia&lt;/i&gt;. Coimbra, Faculdade de Letras-FCT, 2010.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Zorrilla, An&#237;bal, (a) &lt;i&gt;Teor&#237;a y pr&#225;ctica del ritmo&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;a href=&#034;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article810&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article810&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Zorrilla, An&#237;bal, (b) &lt;i&gt;Resonancias discursivas&lt;/i&gt; 2012. Video en &lt;a href=&#034;http://anibalzorrilla.blogspot.com/&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;http://anibalzorrilla.blogspot.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-1&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-1&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;En este caso, la identificaci&#243;n de los alumnos s&#243;lo est&#225; se&#241;alada algunas veces, por letras.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-2&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-2&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&#8220;Movimiento regulado por tiempos, medida, cadencia, ritmo, regularidad, comp&#225;s ; n&#250;mero oratorio, armon&#237;a de un per&#237;odo ; proporci&#243;n regular, disposici&#243;n sim&#233;trica, medida justa ; figura, configuraci&#243;n, forma, car&#225;cter&#8221; (Vox, Diccionario griego-espa&#241;ol)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-3&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-3&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-3&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&#8220;Plus ou moins grande qualit&#233;&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-4&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-4&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-4&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&#8220;c&#339;ur&#8221;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-5&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-5&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-5&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&#8220;Un di&#225;logo en el sentido pleno del t&#233;rmino pone en juego una deliberaci&#243;n interior : uno se pregunta sobre el proceso que llev&#243; a cualquier percepci&#243;n, preferencia, actitud o idea, buscando ligarla a lo que nos condujo a nuestras ideas y principios. Un di&#225;logo supone as&#237; una actitud cr&#237;tica, pero m&#225;s todav&#237;a una actitud autocr&#237;tica. Uno mismo se pone en cuesti&#243;n, de modo que el di&#225;logo puede conducir a un verdadero encuentro con el otro, que conduce invariablemente al conocimiento de s&#237;. Al conocer al otro en sus diferencias, uno se conoce a s&#237; mismo en sus particularidades y en lo que las sostiene y se comprende lo que m&#225;s profundamente nos une al otro. De ah&#237; se desprende un poder vivir con el otro, esencial a la vida pol&#237;tica en una sociedad pluralista que se asume como tal&#8221;. (id., 28)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-6&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-6&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-6&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esta investigaci&#243;n considera la argumentaci&#243;n y su ense&#241;anza en la pr&#225;ctica ; no entra, por tanto, en la cuesti&#243;n curricular que plantea Tibaudeau. Tambi&#233;n los profesores uruguayos hacen lo que creen mejor, condicionados por su contexto, sus saberes y otras limitaciones. Nosotros trabajamos observando sus pr&#225;cticas. Es en el nivel de la &lt;i&gt;argumentaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt; donde intentaremos apreciar qu&#233; pasa, de hecho, con los conceptos y las definiciones. Lo que no implica tomar posici&#243;n en dicha cuesti&#243;n, pero s&#237; es necesario consignarla.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-7&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-7&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-7&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;La alusi&#243;n al c&#233;lebre texto de Arist&#243;teles en la &lt;i&gt;Metaf&#237;sica&lt;/i&gt; : &#8220;Ser se dice de muchas maneras&#8221;, alude a la violencia como algo que &#8220;es&#8221;. Forma parte de nuestras &lt;i&gt;pr&#225;cticas&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-8&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-8&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-8&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Es lo que intentamos desarrollar en los p&#225;rrafos relativos a &lt;i&gt;conceptos&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-9&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-9&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-9&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Es lo que estamos trabajando en este punto.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-10&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-10&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-10&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Marisa Berttolini, Isabel Gonz&#225;lez y Mauricio Langon&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-11&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-11&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-11&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Otra de las sesiones que seleccionamos para analizar estuvieron dirigidas por docentes que asumieron de modo muy distinto su rol. Esto habilita al desarrollo de un estudio comparativo de la incidencia de diversos &#8220;estilos&#8221; docentes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-12&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-12&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-12&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Estos intercambios generalmente no pueden ser observados y son captados en forma de &lt;i&gt;ruido&lt;/i&gt; respecto al debate general. Sin embargo, estas conversaciones se &lt;i&gt;ponen en movimiento&lt;/i&gt; por el ritmo de desarrollo del debate ; como, sin duda, se ponen tambi&#233;n en movimiento procesos inobservables en el interior de cada participante. Independientemente de las interferencias que puedan provocar en el desarrollo del debate, y de que no sean directamente observables, forman parte del &lt;i&gt;aprendizaje de la argumentaci&#243;n&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-13&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-13&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-13&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esta intervenci&#243;n oral enmarca el problema en ese &lt;i&gt;criterio&lt;/i&gt; general y se basa, adem&#225;s, en la diversidad (&lt;i&gt;est&#233;tica&lt;/i&gt;) de &#8220;gustos&#8221;. En el trabajo escrito, el argumento (&#8220;todos son libres de estar con quien quieran&#8221;) No aparece relacionado con una norma general ni de orden &lt;i&gt;est&#233;tico&lt;/i&gt;. En ambos casos, el &lt;i&gt;deber ser&lt;/i&gt; ancla en el &lt;i&gt;ser&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-14&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-14&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-14&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Ver lo dicho m&#225;s arriba sobre &#8220;violencia y v&#233;rtigos argumentales&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-15&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-15&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-15&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;En nuestra propuesta de actividad n&#186; 2, s&#243;lo pedimos identificar las &#8220;posiciones&#8221; y &#8220;razones&#8221; de las autores, pero no pedimos que se evaluaran sus argumentos. Quiz&#225;s hubiera sido posible preguntar tambi&#233;n por qu&#233; argumentos les parec&#237;an &#8220;buenos&#8221; y cu&#225;les no. Es posible que esto haya incidido negativamente en el aspecto que ahora resaltamos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-16&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-16&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-16&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;No se oyen bien ninguna de las 2 grabaciones. Incide en esto : su manejo a&#250;n imperfecto y con acento de nuestro idioma, su ansiedad por decir todo, cierto &#8220;ruido&#8221; ambiente. En la redacci&#243;n escrita la argumentaci&#243;n es tambi&#233;n muy confusa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-17&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-17&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-17&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;La versi&#243;n escrita incluye la formaci&#243;n de los hijos adoptivos y la transmisi&#243;n de enfermedades. Se refiere tambi&#233;n a la complementariedad de los sexos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-18&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-18&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-18&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Algunos autores resaltan la importancia de este tipo de preguntas por parte de los estudiantes, en el sentido de establecimiento de una relaci&#243;n de confianza, igualitaria. Este no parece ser el caso. Quiz&#225;s m&#225;s bien manifiesta la voluntad de &#8220;cerrar&#8221; la discusi&#243;n con el recurso a la autoridad o, simplemente, volver a la idea de una &#8220;clase&#8221; donde se trata de repetir el saber, la ense&#241;anza o la opini&#243;n del docente. Quiz&#225;s se trate de involucrar al docente (y m&#225;s adelante, a la practicante) en el debate, lo que, en este caso, implicar&#237;a anular los roles de coordinaci&#243;n y observaci&#243;n en el mismo. O asumir el ritmo arr&#237;tmico que va teniendo la sesi&#243;n.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-19&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-19&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-19&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;El mismo argumento estaba planteado por uno de los textos de la actividad 2.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-20&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-20&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-20&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;El proyecto de ley, posteriormente aprobado, lo que hace es establecer cambios (derogaciones, sustituciones, agregados) en varios art&#237;culos del C&#243;digo Civil referidos al &#8220;matrimonio&#8221;. Esos cambios modifican su definici&#243;n y adaptan otros art&#237;culos a esas modificaciones.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-21&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-21&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-21&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Dicha actividad se organiz&#243; utilizando como disparador un episodio (3.3) de la serie &#8220;D&lt;sup class=&#034;typo_exposants&#034;&gt;r&lt;/sup&gt;. House&#8221;, cuya problem&#225;tica &#8220;bio&#233;tica&#8221; es particularmente importante en el &#8220;cruce&#8221; de las dos disciplinas que observamos : biolog&#237;a y filosof&#237;a.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb4-22&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh4-22&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 4-22&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Observamos la clase inicial de filosof&#237;a de los seis grupos de alumnos profesores. Durante el a&#241;o se observaron al menos una clase m&#225;s de cada profesor de filosof&#237;a y biolog&#237;a.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>An&#225;lisis de aula : ritmo, concepto, v&#233;rtigos argumentativos &#8211; Anexos
</title>
		<link>https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1315</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1315</guid>
		<dc:date>2014-10-01T05:00:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Mauricio Langon, Marisa Berttolini, Isabel Gonz&#225;lez
</dc:creator>



		<description>
&lt;p&gt;El inicio del art&#237;culo aqu&#237;. I. Actividad inicial sobre &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221; Actividad 1 : (Se dedica a esta actividad aproximadamente la mitad de la primera hora de clase) En nuestro pa&#237;s se est&#225; discutiendo la posibilidad de reconocer legalmente el matrimonio igualitario. Es decir entre personas del mismo sexo. Responde por escrito y en forma individual estas preguntas : &#191;Cu&#225;l es tu posici&#243;n ? &#191;Puedes dar una o varias razones a favor de tu posici&#243;n ? Actividad 2 :(Se (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?rubrique66" rel="directory"&gt;Sciences de l'&#233;ducation et de la formation
&lt;/a&gt;


		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire cs_sommaire_avec_fond&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_titre_avec_fond&#034;&gt; Sommaire &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&#034;cs_sommaire_corps&#034;&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;I. Actividad inicial sobre &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221;&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_0'&gt;I. Actividad inicial sobre &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&amp;#8221&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;II. Ejercicio de Escritura de los alumnos del grupo del P6 : transcripci&#243;n textual&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_1'&gt;II. Ejercicio de Escritura de los alumnos del grupo del P6 : transcripci&#243;n textual&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;III. Desgrabaci&#243;n de la actividad 3, grupo del profesor P6&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire_2'&gt;III. Desgrabaci&#243;n de la actividad 3, grupo del profesor P6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;El inicio del art&#237;culo &lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?article1314' class=&#034;spip_in&#034;&gt;aqu&#237;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_0&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;I. Actividad inicial sobre &#8220;matrimonio igualitario&#8221;&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Actividad 1 : &lt;/strong&gt;(Se dedica a esta actividad aproximadamente la mitad de la primera hora de clase)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
En nuestro pa&#237;s se est&#225; discutiendo la posibilidad de reconocer legalmente el matrimonio igualitario. Es decir entre personas del mismo sexo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Responde por escrito y en forma individual estas preguntas :
&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip-puce ltr&#034;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&#8211;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &#191;Cu&#225;l es tu posici&#243;n ?
&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip-puce ltr&#034;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&#8211;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &#191;Puedes dar una o varias razones a favor de tu posici&#243;n ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Actividad 2 :&lt;/strong&gt;(Se dedica a esta actividad la mitad de la primera hora de clase)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Leer los dos textos que se proponen a continuaci&#243;n. Responder por escrito e individualmente estas preguntas para cada uno de los textos. &lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip-puce ltr&#034;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&#8211;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &#191;Qu&#233; posici&#243;n tiene el entrevistado ?
&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip-puce ltr&#034;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&#8211;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &#191;C&#243;mo fundamenta su posici&#243;n ? Intenta identificar cada una de las razones&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Textos para la actividad 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Texto 1 :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P : -En Argentina, se aprob&#243; en el Congreso el matrimonio homosexual. &#191;Estar&#237;a de acuerdo con esa medida en Uruguay ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E : -Estar&#237;a de acuerdo, como lo estuve cuando vot&#233; la norma legal uruguaya sobre uni&#243;n concubinaria. En el caso gay lo veo como un tema de derechos individuales. No estamos ante un capricho, simplemente se reconocer&#237;a una situaci&#243;n que se da en la vida. Siempre existi&#243;, solo que antes era clandestina y pecaminosa, fuente de infortunios. Ahora, el mundo contempor&#225;neo ha reconocido esa realidad y nada impide buscar su legalizaci&#243;n. Es m&#225;s, vivimos un mundo de debilitamiento institucional. &#191;No es mejor que existan quienes quieren asumir derechos y obligaciones ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P : -&#191;La familia como instituci&#243;n quedar&#237;a afectada por una iniciativa de este tipo ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E :-La familia como instituci&#243;n se refuerza. Se debilita cuando existe el hecho por fuera de la ley, como ocurre actualmente. Si esta situaci&#243;n se legaliza, es porque se reconoce el valor de la institucionalidad. No son gente que quiera eludir sino, por el contrario, construir una relaci&#243;n estable, una pareja estable.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P : -Por el contrario, &#191;no considera que esta medida derribar&#237;a otro muro de discriminaci&#243;n ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E :-Por supuesto que se supera una discriminaci&#243;n. Es una opci&#243;n individual que debe respetarse.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P :-&#191;Har&#237;a falta una nueva figura jur&#237;dica exclusiva para estas parejas ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E :-Siempre es preferible legalizar, porque es el modo de definir adecuadamente derechos y obligaciones y que la situaci&#243;n no quede librada simplemente a los hechos. Mucha gente, equivocadamente, lo toma como si esto fuera una obligaci&#243;n y es lo opuesto, simplemente se trata de no cercenar un derecho. Tampoco es un tema de libertad religiosa sino de derechos civiles.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Fuente : Portal Digital El Pa&#237;s, domingo 25/7/2010, 17:10. Montevideo, Uruguay&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Se omite intencionalmente la identidad del entrevistado.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb5-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;El entrevistado es el ex Presidente del Uruguay Julio Mar&#237;a Sanguinetti.&#034; id=&#034;nh5-1&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Texto 2 :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P :-En Argentina, se aprob&#243; en el Congreso el matrimonio homosexual. &#191;Estar&#237;a de acuerdo con esa medida en Uruguay ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E : -El Estado no debe inmiscuirse en las costumbres de las personas. El Estado no debe entrar al dormitorio. Cada uno hace de su vida privada lo que quiere. Ese es nuestro concepto de la libertad individual. Segundo, el matrimonio es algo m&#225;s que un contrato ; es una instituci&#243;n definida por el C&#243;digo Civil como la uni&#243;n de var&#243;n y mujer para formar una familia, que es la instituci&#243;n principal de la sociedad, cuyo principal objeto es la procreaci&#243;n. Por lo tanto, la palabra matrimonio tiene un contenido que solo puede definirse entre var&#243;n y mujer.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P :-&#191;La familia como instituci&#243;n quedar&#237;a afectada por una iniciativa de este tipo ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E :-Por supuesto, porque no se debe confundir matrimonio con cualquier tipo de uni&#243;n entre personas del mismo sexo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P :-Por el contrario, &#191;no considera que esta medida derribar&#237;a otro muro de discriminaci&#243;n ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E : -No se trata de discriminaci&#243;n, sino simplemente el cumplimiento de las leyes. En este caso se innovar&#237;a legislando sobre otra forma de asociaci&#243;n entre personas de un mismo sexo, pero que no es matrimonio ni puede serlo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
P :-&#191;Har&#237;a falta una nueva figura jur&#237;dica exclusiva para estas parejas ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
E : -Nosotros no somos contrarios a lo que podr&#237;a definirse como contratos de pareja, porque est&#225; dentro de las libertades de los seres humanos y no siempre tiene que tener, cuando se trata de parejas del mismo sexo, connotaciones sexuales. Pueden ser amigos, gente que se ha jubilado y vive junta, dos maestros, dos maestras y quieren dejarse las pensiones, dejarse los bienes, y estamos dispuestos a legislar lo que se llamar&#237;a contrato de amistad&#8230; habr&#237;a que ponerle el nombre, pero es un contrato de pareja que puede ser de personas del mismo sexo. Repito : no entramos en las consideraciones del aspecto sexual. Puede ser la manera de generarse derechos respectivamente, jubilatorios, pensionarios o dejarse los bienes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Fuente : Portal Digital El Pa&#237;s, domingo 25/7/2010, 17:10. Montevideo, Uruguay&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Se omite intencionalmente la identidad del entrevistado.&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt; [&lt;a href=&#034;#nb5-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; rel=&#034;appendix&#034; title=&#034;El entrevistado es el ex Presidente del Uruguay Luis Alberto Lacalle.&#034; id=&#034;nh5-2&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;Actividad 3 : oral y colectiva&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;BR/&gt;
Imaginen que ustedes son el Parlamento y tienen que decidir argumentando (a favor o en contra) sobre el reconocimiento legal del matrimonio igualitario.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034; id=&#034;outil_sommaire_1&#034;&gt;&lt;a title=&#034;Sommaire&#034; href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/spip.php?id_rubrique=66&amp;page=backend#outil_sommaire' class=&#034;sommaire_ancre&#034;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;II. Ejercicio de Escritura de los alumnos del grupo del P6 : transcripci&#243;n textual&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;div class='spip_document_1980 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
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&lt;/figure&gt;
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&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH537/aula_ritmo_langon_6-a9d24.jpg?1714933952' width='500' height='537' alt='' /&gt;
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&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/IMG/jpg/aula_ritmo_langon_20.jpg' class=&#034;spip_doc_lien mediabox&#034; type=&#034;image/jpeg&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH644/aula_ritmo_langon_20-57a26.jpg?1714933953' width='500' height='644' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class='spip_document_2000 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;a href='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/IMG/jpg/aula_ritmo_langon_21.jpg' class=&#034;spip_doc_lien mediabox&#034; type=&#034;image/jpeg&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH645/aula_ritmo_langon_21-b7581.jpg?1714933953' width='500' height='645' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class='spip_document_2002 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_left spip_document_left'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.rhuthmos.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH488/aula_ritmo_langon_22-2-6df96.jpg?1714933953' width='500' height='488' alt='' /&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;hr /&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_notes'&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb5-1&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh5-1&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 5-1&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;El entrevistado es el ex Presidente del Uruguay Julio Mar&#237;a Sanguinetti.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div id=&#034;nb5-2&#034;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmla&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;spip_note_ref&#034;&gt;[&lt;a href=&#034;#nh5-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_note&#034; title=&#034;Notes 5-2&#034; rev=&#034;appendix&#034;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&#034;csfoo htmlb&#034;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;El entrevistado es el ex Presidente del Uruguay Luis Alberto Lacalle.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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